ATHLETIC SPORTS FOR BOYS: 






A REPOSITORY 



GRACEFUL RECREATIONS FOR YOUTH. 



CONTAINING 
COMPLETE INSTRUCTIONS IN GYMNAS- 
TICS, LIMB EXERCISES, JUMPING, AND POLE LEAP- 
ING. ALSO FULL DIRECTIONS FOR THE USE OF DUMB BELLS, 
INDIAN CLUBS, PARALLEL BARS, THE HORIZONTAL BAR, THE TRAPEZE, AND THE SUS- 
PENDED ROPES,* AND IN THE MANLY ACCOMPLISHMENTS OF SKATING. 
SWIMMING. ROWING, SAILING, RIDING, DRIVING, 
ANGLING, FENCING, AND THE BROAD- 
SWORD EXERCISE. 



SPLENDIDLY ILLUSTRATED WITH 194 FIXE WOOD-CUTS AND 
DIAGRAMS. 



NEW YORK: 
DICK & FITZGERALD, PUBLISHERS. 



9li 






Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1866, 

By DICK & FITZGERALD, 

in the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the United States for the Southern 
District of New York. 



Lovejot & Son, 

Electrotypers and Stereotypers. 

15 Vandewater street ST. Y. 






INDEX. 



ANGLING 

Baits 

Clearing Ring, the 

Directions for Anglers. . 

Disgorger, the 

Floats 

Fly Fishing 

Gaff-Hook, the 

Hooks 

Leaders 

Lines , 

Nets 

Reel, the 

Rod, the 

Sinkers, or Dipsies 

Swivels 

"Water-knot, the 



PAGE 

. 132 
. 135 
. 135 
. 130 
. 130 
. 134 
. 139 
. 135 
. 1:33 
. 134 
. 133 
. 134 
. 133 
. 132 
. 134 
. 134 
. 150 



BOATING 73 

Boating Terms SO 

Component Parts of Boats 79 

Cutter Rowing 85 

Faults to be Avoided 85 

Landing 84 

Management of the Boat S3 

of the Oar 81 

River Rowing 81 

Rowing, Essential Points in S3 

Sea Rowing 81 

BROADSWORD 163 

Attack and Defence 169 

Carry Swords Ill 

Cuts 166 

Draw Swords 170 

Drawing Cut 173 

Fifth Practice 172 

First Lesson in Sword Exercise 163 

Fort and Feeble 172 

Fourth Practice 172 

General Advice 174 

Guards 167 

Hanging Guard 1 63 

Inside Guard 163 

Outside Guard 169 

Parry 167 

Points 166 

Positions 163 



PAGE 

BROADSWORD (continued). 

Practices 171 

Recover Swords 170 

Return Swords — Second Practice 171 

Slope Swords 171 

Target 165 

Third Practice 172 

DRIVING 123 

Carriages, Kinds of 123 

Difficult Situations for Drivers 123 

Directions for Driving 125 

Harness. Description of 123 

Putting to 125 

Road, the 127 

Starti ng 126 

Vices of the Horse in Harness 113 

' FENCING (see Broadsword) 151 

Advance 152 

| All Feints 162 

Apparatus for Fencing 

Appels 160 

Assault, the General Advice on 162 

Attacks 159 

Beat and Disengagement 161 

and Thrust 161 

Beats on the Blade 160 

Contre- Parades 158 

Cut Over and Disengagement 161 

Cut over the Point 161 

Demi-Circle 157 

Disengagement , 159 

Doubled 162 

Engage 154 

Glizades 160 

Guard 151 

Longe 153 

Octave 157 

One-Two 159 

One, Two, Three 160 

Parades 154 

Qnarte 155 

Recover , 153 

Retreat 152 

Seconde 156 

Straight Thrust 159 

Tierce 155 



IJiDliX. 



PAGE 

FISH, Descriptions o» ....... 137 

Black Buss 143 

Blackfish 148 

Blnefish 14S 

Carp, or Tench 144 

Catfish 146 

Chub, the 14G 

Codfish 149 

Druinfish 14T 

Eel, the 145 

Garfish 145 

Goldfish 146 

Kingfish, or Barb 14S 

Mullet. 144 

Perch 142 

Pike 141 

Pike-Perch 142 

Eed-Eye 143 

Eedfish .148 

Red-Horse 143 

Eoach, the 146 

Salmon, the 137 

Sea-Bass 149 

Sheepshead, the 147 

Star-fish 

Striped Bass, or Eockfish 141 

Sucker, the 144 

Sunfish, the 144 

Tom Cod , 149 

Trout 13S 

Weakfish 147 

White Lake Bass 143 

GYMNASTICS y. 5 

Arm Exercises 9 

Dumb-Bells J . . 16 

Giant Stride, the 50 

Horizontal Bar, Exercises with 31 

Indian Club, Exercises with 17 

Jumping 12 

Ladder, the, how to Mount 51 

Leg Exercises 11 

Marching 6 

Parallel Bars, Exercises with 20 

Pole Leaping 15 

Eunning 9 

Stilts 52 

Suspended Bar, or Trapeze 39 

Eopes, Exercises on 43 

GYMNASTIC TRICKS . , 52 

HORSEMANSHIP (see Driving) 105 

Age of the Horse, Marks of. 106 

Control of the Horse 115 

Dismounting 113 



PAGE 

HORSEMANSHIP (c&ntmw n. 

Form of the Horse 109 

Leaping 117 

Management of the Gallop 117 

of the Reins 113 

of the Walk 115 

Mounting 112 

Paces of the Horse 107 

Parts of the Horse 

Seat, the 114 

Terms used by Horsemen 106 

Trot and Canter 116 

Yices, Treatment of 118 

ROWING 81 

Cutter Rowing 85 

Faults to be Avoided 85 

SAILING , 87 

Cautions and Directions 100 

Compass, the Mariner's 100 

Cutter- Yacht, Description of. 92 

Howto Sail a Boat 98 

Nautical Terms 101 

Sail-Boat, the ... 97 

Sailing Vessels, Yarious Kinds of 88 

Yachts 91 

SKATING 55 

Circles and Curves , 58 

Evolutions, how to perform 57 

Eigure 3 and Figure 8 60 

How to Stop 57 

Outside and Inside Edge 57 

Salute, the 57 

Start, the 55 

SWIMMING 62 

Aids to Swimming 6^ 

Back, Swimming on the 72 

Balancing — Danger, Saving from . 74 

Fling, the 71 

Floating 70 

Hand over Hand Swimming 74 

Legs, how to manage the C9 

Mill, the 73 

Plunging and Diving. 68 

Rules of Swimming 62 

Side, Swimming on the 69 

Sports and Feats in Swimming 75 

Striking Off and Swimming 67 

Swimming Under Water 69 

Swimming with One Hand 73 

Thrusting 72 

Treading Water 71 

Wheel, Backward and Forward 73 



ATHLETIC SPORTS FOR ROYS. 




Gymnastic exercises may be begun by a boy of about eight years of age, 
or may be commenced at any age ; but, in all cases, he should begin gently, 
and proceed gradually, without any abrupt transitions. They should be 
commenced before breakfast in the morning, or before dinner or supper; but 
never immediately after meals ; and the pupil should be very careful, after 
becoming heated by exercises, of draughts or cold, and especially refrain 
from lying on the damp ground, or from standing without his coat or other 
garments; and rigidly guard against the dangerous practice of drinking 
cold water, which, in many instances, has been known to produce immediate 
death. 

A proper practice of, and mastery over, the feats of Gymnastics, serve to 
develop the muscles, and are preparatory to the proper performance of all 
athletic sports and exercises. TVhat we propose to show, are feats as may 
be performed by any lad, without expensive apparatus, and without a 
teacher ; and which will be amusing as well as healthy to the performer. 
These are preliminary to other and more pleasing exercises ; for fencing, 
rowing, riding, etc., are gymnastic feats of a more advanced kind. We 
shall commence with Marching, and so advance through the whole round. 



O MARCHING. 

MARCHING. 

It is not necessary to say any thing about the ordinary mode of walking, 
which should be easy, free, and natural ; or about the Indian lope, which is 
used in fast walking, the body being thrown forward, and the strides long ; 
but the principles of the military step should be explained, as a good pre- 
paration for gymnastic exercises. 

The boys should choose a captain, who should be a rather bright fellow, 
and he must study out thoroughly the following, so as to be able to drill the 
rest, who act as his company. He should first teach them the position and 
facings, and then the principles of the step. la giving out the words of 
command, he should pronounce the first word, or words, if there are two 
or more, slowly, by way of caution, and the last word quick and sharp. 
The moment the boys hear the first word they should get ready, and then 
execute the command when the second word comes. If the command con- 
sists of one word only, the last syllable is the part to be obeyed, and the 
first the caution. 

The Position. — At the word of command, " Atten — Hon /" which should be 
pronounced with the last syllable accented, every boy will stand in this 
way: 

His heels on the same line, and touching each other. 

The feet turned out equally, so as to make a shape like a broad letter Y 

The knees straight, but not stiff. 

The body erect, but inclining a little forward. 

The shoulders square. 

The arms hanging naturally. 

The elbows near the body. 

The palm of the hand turned a little to the front, with the little finger 
resting on the seam of the pantaloons. 

The head erect and square to the front, but not stiff nor constrained. 

The eyes looking straight to the front, and at a spot on the ground about 
fifteen paces off. 

Each boy will place himself so that he can touch the left side of his right- 
hand neighbor, without jostling him, by raising his elbow slightly, take the 
position given, and wait for the next word of command. 

The captain will now give the word, " Eyes — right!" At the word right, 
each boy will turn his head gently and quickly, so as to briug the inner cor- 
ner of the left eye on a line with the centre of his breast, so as to look 
down the line of boys on that side. But he must not move his body or his 
shoulders. The head must turn, as it were, on a pivot. 

At the word "Front!" the head will be brought back to its former posi- 
tion. 

At the word, "Eyes — left!" the head will be turned to the left, in the 
same manner as was previously done to the right. 

At the word " Front /" the head will take its former position. 



MARCHING. 7 

At the word u Rest T each boy may stand in any easy way he likes, but 
will not step out of his place. Whenever the word "Attention!" is given, 
he will take the position before taught. 

The Facings. — The next thing is the facing to the right and left. At the 
word "Right — facer 1 each boy will raise the right foot slightly, turn on the 
left heel, raising the toes a little, and then replace the right heel by the side 
of the left, on the same line. This will bring the boy in a position at right 
angles to the right, with the way lie stood before. 

At the word " Left — face!" he will raise the left foot slightly, turn on the 
right heel, raising the toes a little, and replace the left heel by the side of 
the right, on the same line. This will place him on the left, at right angles 
with his former position. 

To turn completely around, the word is, "About — face!" At the word 
about, each boy will turn on the left heel, bring the left toe to the front, 
carry the right foot to the rear, without turning it, the hollow of that foot 
opposite to, and about three inches from, the left heel, the feet at right 
angles with each other. At the word face, he will turn on both heels, raise 
the toes a little, extend the hams, face to the rear, and, at the same time, 
bring the right heel by the side of the left. He must take care, at the same 
time, to keep his body as square as possible, these motions being done with 
the feet. 

The Stejj. — Having learned the position and facings, each boy will now 
exercise the step. To do this the captain will give the word, " Forward — 
common time — March!' 1 At the word ''Forward!' 1 each boy will throw 
the weight of the body on the right leg, without bending the left knee. At 
the word " March P he will carry his hft foot smartly forward to the length 
of this step,* the sole near the ground, the ham extended, the toe a little 
depressed, and slightly turned out, the knee also slightly turned out ; he 
will, at the same time, throw the weight of the body forward, and plant 
flat the left foot, without jarring or shocking the leg, precisely at the dis- 
tance where it finds itself from the right when the weight of the body is 
brought forward, the whole of which will now rest on the advanced left 
foot. The right foot will next be brought forward in the same manner, 
without striking one leg against the other, or turning the shoulders, and 
with the face kept to the front. This will be repeated until the word 
11 Halt I" At the word " Halt!" the foot in front will be put to the ground, 
and the other foot brought up to it, and there remain. 

To practise this properly, the boy who acts as captain should either cry 
"one," as the left foot is set down, and "two," as the right foot is brought 
to the ground; or use the words "left I right !" in the same manner, thus 
marking the time. 

Common time is ninety steps to the minute ; the time of the quick step 
is one hundred and ten to the minute. The captain can learn this cadence 

♦In a man this would be twenty-eight inches, from heel to heel; and it is proportion- 
ately less for boys. 



8 MARCHING. 

by counting with a watch before him, and the other boys will get it by 

practice. 

The quick step is executed in the same way as the step in common time ; 
but the time is not named in the command. The word is " Forward — 
March 1" and when it is given without the time being mentioned, it will 
always be the quick step. 

The double-quick step is faster, and is, in fact, a slow run, in the time of 
one hundred and sixty-rive steps to the minute. Before commencing this, 
the boys will be taught the principles of the step by being exercised in 
marking time, which is a funny but necessary proceeding. 

The word is "Double-quick step — March!" At the word "Double-quick 
step!" each boy will raise his hands to a level with his hips, the hands 
closed, the nails toward the body, the elbows in the rear. At the word 
11 March !" he will raise to the front his left leg, so bent as to give the knee 
the greatest elevation, the part of the leg between the knee and the instep 
being kept perpendicular, the toe depressed ; he will then replace the foot 
in its former position, and execute the same movement with his right leg, and 
so on, alternately, without moving forward, until the word " Halt!" when he 
will bring the foot which is raised by the side of the other, drop his hands 
by his sides, and resume the position he would take at the word "Atten- 
tion! 1 ' 

"When the captain has practised the boys for some time in marking 
time in this way, he will set them to execute the step itself. The word 
is "Forward — Double-quick — March!" At the word "Forward!" each 
boy will throw his weight on the right leg. At the word " Double-quick!" 
he will place his body just as he would do at the command "Double- 
quick — Step," in marking time. At the word "March !" he will carry for- 
ward the left foot, the leg slightly bent, the knee somewhat raised ; will 
plant his left foot, the toe first, at the quick-step distance;* and then do the 
same with the right foot, throwing the weight of the body on the foot that 
is down, and giving the arms a slight natural motion. This will be done 
alternately until the word "Halt!" when the boy will stop in the same 
manner set down for the other steps. 

In executing these manoeuvres the line of boys should be taught to dress 
— that is, to align itself, or keep itself straight. To do this properly, the 
captain will number the boys, from right to left, and each boy will learn to 
know his number. He will then place No. 1 and No. 2 on the right, two paces 
in front of the line of boys, and, having put them in a perfect line, just so 
close that they can touch each other's elbow, without opening their own, 
but not so close that they jostle each other. He will now call out, " Num- 
ber Three!" At the word, No. 3 will march forward two paces in quick 
time, shortening the last pace so as to be about six inches behind the line. He 
will move up by steps of two or three inches, quickly and steadily, until he 

* This, in a full-grown man, would be thirty-three inches. 



RULING. LIMB EXERCISES. 9 

reaches the side of No. 2, and, with Ms eyes to the right, without removing 
his shoulders from their square position, will see that he is in exact line, 
and at the same time that he can touch slightly the elbow of No. 2. Then 
No. 4 will go through the same movement at the word, and so on. When 
this has been practised for some time, the boys will be able to align them- 
selves easily at the word of command. This, if the boys are desired to 
dress toward the right, is " Right — Dress 1" If toward the left, is " Left — 
Dress!'' As soon as the rank is aligned, the captain gives the word, " Front I" 
when the head and eyes are brought square forward again. 

If the boys are marching in quick, or double-quick time, and they want 
to face about, without halting, the word is, "Right about — March!" At 
the word " March!" which must be given at the instant the left foot is com- 
ing to the ground, each boy will bring this foot to the ground, and by turn- 
ing on it, face the other way. Then he will put down his right foot, and 
step off, left foot forward, in the new direction. 

It is necessary to particularly remember — 1. That where there is no time 
mentioned between the word Forward and March, the quick step is always 
to be used. 

2. That the order for marking time in the double-quick may be dis- 
tinguished from the order to march in the same step in this way — it has no 
"forward" before it, and the cautionary word is " Double-quick step," in- 
stead of "Double-quick." Thus, to mark time, the word is "Double-quick 
step — March!" while to march in the same time, the word is "Forward — 
Double-quick — March !" 

3. The command " About face !" is to turn each boy to the opposite face, 
when he is at a halt; and the command " Right about !" when he is march- 
ing, 

RUNNING. 

In running, you go through the same motions as the double-quick step 
in marching, but you increase the swiftness of your motion accordingly. 

LIMB EXERCISES. 

Independently of the walking and running, there are exercises of the 
arms and legs which are worthy attention ; and may either follow or pre- 
cede the learning of the step. 

The boys are to be brought by their captain to the attitude of " Attention." 
First Arm Exercise. — At the word one, throw out the palm to a line with 
the body, and raise the arms slowly, without bending the elbows, till they 
are horizontal with the shoulder, and the boys stand in the form of the 
letter T, the palm of the hand pointing downward ; at the word two, bring 
the arms down sharply into the first position. (See Illustration.) Remember 
that all the boys must be taught to keep exact time in their exercises — and 
the word of command must help them to this — the word one being given slowly, 
and two sharply. Thus : oo-nn-ne, two, oo-nn-ne, two, and let each exercise 
be repeated till the boys learn to do it all together, smartly and well. 
1* 



10 



LIMB EXERCISES. 







FIEST POSITION — ATTENTION 



Second Arm Exercise. — At the word one, bend 
the right elbow, without moving the upper part 
of the arm, and bring the fist up in front of the 
shoulder, with the knuckles toward the shoulder ; 
at the word two, drop the arm to the former posi- 
tion. Repeat — one, two; one, two; the same ex- 
ercise with the left arm ; the same with both arms. 
(See Fig. 1.) 

Third Arm Exercise. — At the word one, raise the 
right arm as in the last exercise ; at two, bring it 
straight up beside the head (fist doubled) , three, re- 
turn to the same position as at one; four, drop arm 
to position of attention. Repeat — one, two, three, 
four; one, two, three, four; same exercise with left 
arm ; same with both arms. (See Fig. 2.) 

Fourth Arm Exercise. — At the word one, raise 
the right arm as in the second exercise; two, 
stretch it out horizontally in front of you, as if stri- 
king a blow (knuckles upward) ; one, arm as in 
second exercise: two, strike out again. Repeat— » 
one, two ; the same with left arm ; the same with 
both arms. 





Pig. 1. 



Fig. 2. 



Fig. a 



LEG EXERCISES. 



11 



-@ 



Fifth Arm Exercise.— Same as the fourth, but at the word two turn the 
arm in stretching it out so that in the horizontal position the knuckles are 
downward. Repeat with left arm ; then with both. (See Fig. 3.) 

Sixth Arm Exercise. — At 
the word one double the 
right arm as in the third 
exercise; at two bring it 
straight up above the head, 
(fist doubled;) three, extend 
it outwards from the side so 

as to form a right angle with 

the body ; at four bring the \|H_ 

arm back to the position of 
one, striking the right lung. 
Eepeat — one, two, three, 
four ; one, two, three, four ; 
same with left arm, same 
with both. (See Fig, 4.) 

Seventh Arm Exercise. — 
At the word one raise the 
arm slowly forward (keeping 
it quite stiff till it has de- 
scribed half a circle and is 
raised above the head; at 
two complete the circle by 
bringing it down backward, 
letting the fist be as far be- 
hind the body as possible, till the hand returns to the first position. Eepeat 
this, increasing the rapidity of the movement, as the exercise becomes more 
familiar, but always keeping perfect time to the word of command; the 
same with the left hand, and with both hands. 

Eighth Arm Exercise. — The same as the seventh, but begin the circle by 
moving the arms backward from the body, and bring them forward in the 
descending half of the circle, thus reversing the movement. 

A variety of other exercises may be undertaken, all tending to give 
strength and suppleness to the arms ; but the foreging, if perfectly under- 
stood, will be found sufficient for the purpose. 




LEG EXERCISES. 

First Leg Exercise. — At the word one, advance the left foot, keeping the 
knee straight, and the point of the foot a little outward, and just touching 
the ground ; the whole of the weight of the body being balanced on the 
right leg; at the word two, draw the left leg rapidly behind the other, 
and repeat the exercise several times. Then go through the same with the 
right leg. 



12 JUMPING. 

Second Leg Exercise. — This exercise consists in lifting each leg alternately 
as high as possible, the body being kept perfectly straight and steady. 
In all these exercises care must be taken that the boys move exactly in 
time. 

Flexion of the Lower Extremities. — This is an important exercise, and 
should be executed with particular care. Bring the tops of the feet nearer 
together than in the usual position, and place your hands on your hips, the 
thumbs in the front and the fore -fingers behind. Then bend the legs, keep- 
ing the body perfectly erect and the knees together. At first this bending 





must be only partial, but as the movement is repeated, the pupil should 
bend lower and lower each time, until he can assume the position shown in 
the engraving, and resume an erect posture, standing on the top of his toes, 
without moving his feet further. The head and body must be kept per- 
fectly erect during the whole time. 



JUMPING. 

There are several ways of jumping, the principal being upward, down- 
ward, and the long leap. These should be well studied in sport, as circum- 
stances may arise in after life in which it becomes necessary to practise 
them in earnest. 

The Long or Horizontal Leap. — To execute this leap, the boy, without a 
run, must bring his feet close together, then bend his legs slightly, throwing 



JUMPING. 



13 



his arms forward, with the hands closed, at the height of the shoulders. 
This bending of the knees must be repeated two or three times, as by 
this means an impetus is acquired, similar to the "accumulation of power" 
obtained by swinging a stone round the head with a sling two or three times 
before discharging it. AVhen the 
requisite impulse is obtained, he 
must press the soles of the feet 
hard against the ground, and by a 
sudden and vigorous spring, ex- 
tending his arms and his legs at 
once, he launches himself forward, 
alighting, as far on as possible, on 
the tips of his toes. Care must be 
taken to bend the legs the moment 
the feet touch the ground after the 
leap, as this deadens the shock 
caused by the sudden weight of the 
body thrown on the feet, and the 
weight of the spring. In this, as in 
all kinds of leaping, it is advisable 
to begin with short distances, taking 

care to leap neatly and gracefully, gradually extending the distance as pro- 
ficiency is attained. By attempting too much at first, the learner will only 
expose himself to disappointment, besides getting into a slovenly way of 
leaping, and running the risk of a sprained ankle. 

Tlie Downward Leap. — This is a very useful exercise ; and as it presents 






THE DOWNWAED 



THE UPWABD LEAP. 



14 JUMPING. 

some difficulties, it should be practised sedulously at gradually increasing 
heights. It is, moreover, a gymnastic operation which many have involun- 
tarily to perform in some emergencies of actual life. The number of people 
annually mutilated, or even killed, by jumping down from heights, in cases 
of fire and similar calamities, is lamentable; and yet the majority of these 
might have escaped unhurt, if they had only known how to set about the 
undertaking. Like poor little Prince Arthur, in Sliakspeare's play of 
4i King John," they have been compelled to say: — 

* The wall is high, and yet I will leap down ; 
Kind ground, be merciful, and hurt me not.'" 

"Whereas, had they known how to leap, they need not have been at the 
mercy of the " kind ground" at all. Proceed in the following manner : 

Having mounted to the height from which you are to leap down, stand 
with your feet together, the toes pointed forward, not outward. Close 
your fists at your sides, and raise yourself gradually on tiptoe, bending the 
knees, and raising your hands as you do so (see Illustration) ; on bending 
for the third time, drop gently off the elevation (carefully avoiding any 
thing like a spring), and as you descend through the air, straighten the 
body, throwing the arms upward as much as possible. Directly the points 
of your toes touch the ground, bend the knees forward, to break the impe- 
tus of your falL Take care to increase the height from which you leap very 
gradually, and never attempt a deeper jump till you are quite perfect in the 
previous ones. 

The Upward Leap. — Bring the feet close together. Close the fists, raising 
them above the head, and bend the knees two or three times, to get an im- 
pulse. Jump suddenly from the ball of the foot (the heel not touching the 
ground), and as you rise, bring the hands rapidly down to your sides, as 
this will give you an additional impulse upward. Here, too, the distance 
of your leaps must be increased very gradually, as the effect of missing your 
tip, as it is called, may be painful and unpleasant. 

Running Leap. — For a horizontal leap, with a run, the boy should start 
at a brisk pace, increasing as he nears the point from which he is to spring ; 
on reaching which, he must jump forward, without a moment's pause, so as 
to lose none of the impulse of his run. On rising to his leap, let him press 
the balls of his feet strongly against the ground, throwing his fists forward 
horizontally in the direction of his leap. On touching the ground after the 
leap, the knees must be bent and the body thrown backward. The same 
rules apply to the upward leap, except that here the fists must be thrown 
not forward, but upward, as the body rises. 

Two points are to be particularly observed in jumping ivith a run. The 
first is to bound from the ground with as much force, and the second, to 
alight upon it with as little force as possible. If the leaper comes down upon 
hi3 heels, the whole body receives a very unpleasant shock, in which the 
brain partakes, and violent headache is frequently the consequence. If he 



VOLE LEAPING. 



15 



comes down flat-footed, and his shoes happen to be a little short, or too flexi- 
ble, he will stump his toes in a very painful fashion. The right way is to 
come down upon the ball of the foot, with both toes and heels raised, and 
then to bring down the heels as the legs are straightened after the jump. 
In a horizontal leap, the jumper sometimes finds himself thrown unpleas- 
antly forward. This is because he has not leaped high enough off the 
ground, but has skimmed along it like one of the stones used in '"Ducks and 
Drakes." But "Duck and Drake" practice in leaping is a very painful affair, 
frequently accompanied by " bumps" on prominent parts of the face, and 
bruises on the hands. 

POLE LEAPING. 

The pole should be made of some tough, hard wood, not liable to snap, 
and adapted to the height and strength of the boy, and to the length of the 
leaps he is to undertake. 

The boy should begin with a 
short pole, and practise leaping 
without a run. Rest one end 
of the pole on the ground, hold- 
ing it by both hands, placed 
near each other, a little above 
the head. Then spring up 
evenly on both feet, managing 
the arms so that the elbows are 
bent when the body passes the 
pole. Push yourself forward as 
far as possible, leaning all your 
weight on the pole, and continue 
this practice, gradually increas- 
ing the distance of your leaps. 

For a horizontal leap, with a 
run, stand at some distance from ^^S 

the space you wish to clear. 

Hold the pole with the right hand above your head, thumb upward, and 
with the left hand at the height of the thigh, thumb downward. Then 
start with a run. keeping the lower end of the pole in front cf you. On 
reaching the edge of the ditch, or space which you wish to jump, 'stick tho 
end of the pole into the earth, and by a sudden and powerful spring, raise 
the body, leaning the weight on the arms as you rise, making a half turn 
as you clear the space, and alight on the balls of the feet, on the other side, 
bending the knees to break the force of the descent. The longer the distance 
you have to leap, the nearer the top must you grasp the pole, the distance 
between your hands and the lower end of the pole being in fact the radius 
of a half-circle, of which your feet, in leaping, describe the circumference. 

Low walls and fences may be jumped by means of the leaping pole. 




1(3 



DUMB-BELLS. 



Here it becomes necessary to lift the feet high as you rise, so as to clear the 
wall, and as you descend bring the upper hand smartly down, so as to jerk 
the lower end of the leaping pole upward, that it may clear the wall. 

DUMB-BELLS 




Fig.l. 

Are excellent for opening 





Fig. 3. 



the chest and developing the muscles of the 
arms ; but care must be taken not to put 
too heavy a pair into the hands of a 
novice, In ancient times they were 
used by the Greeks and Romans in 
their gymnastic evolutions. The first 
exercise consists in raising the dumb- 
bells alternately to the height of the 
shoulder, the hands of the boy being 
brought steadily up, straight before 
him ; all appearance of jerking or effort 
must be avoided. The movements cf 
dumb-bell exercises are generally pretty 
much like those in arm exercise ; but 
they are more efficacious, inasmuch 
as the weight of the dumb-bells develops 
the muscular powers of the arms and 
opens the chest. The motions must not, 
however, be continued too long without 



THE INDIAN CLUB. 



17 



rest, as the work is rather heavy. "We give the fallowing two exercises, 
which, together with the motions described in the hand and arm exercises, 
already given, will be amply sufficient for the young gymnast. 

First Exercise. — Take the position of Fig. 1, incline the body forward, 
throwing the arms upward behind the back, as in Fig. 2 ; resume position 
of Fig. 1. Repeat this four times. Take the position of Fig. 1, throw the 
chest and arms backward as in Fig. 3 ; resume position of Fig. 1. Repeat 
four times. Then perform the combined exercises four times. TJiese motions 
should not be performed rapidly. 

Second Exercise. — Take the position 
of Fig. 4, stand erect, head inclined a 
little back, with the arms extended full 
length in front, and the bells held hori- ... 
zontally, with the thumbs together. At 
the command one, bend the body a lit- 
tle forward, and bring the arms directly 
to the rear, as represented by the dotted 
lines in Fig. 4, turning the bells com- 
pletely over, and still keeping the thumbs 
together in making the motion. At the 
command two, bring the bells to first po- 
sition. Repeat this rapidly several times. 

THE INDIAN CLUB. 
This branch of gymnastics is one 
we strongly recommend to boys. In 
using the clubs the chest is expanded, 
greater freedom is given in the use of 
the arms, the muscles of the legs and 
arms as well as those of the whole 

body are brought into full use, the wrist is strengthened, the grasp of the 
hand is made firmer, the circulation of the blood is regulated, and the 
health in general is greatly improved. If their use is persevered in, they 
will render the person who practises with them ambidextrous — that is to 
say, he will be able to use his left arm almost as well as his right in hurling, 





flinging stones, lifting weights, and similar operations. The young gymnast 
must be careful, and use light clubs at the outset, remembering that if he 
persevere, he may soon achieve the skill and strength necessary to wield 



18 



THE INDIAN CLUB. 



heavy ones with ease. The clubs vary in length, ranging from eighteen to 
thirty inches. The shape mostly used is shown in the foregoing illustration. 

The illustration represents the largest and. smallest sizes ; there should 
be at least six sizes between these two, making eight different sizes 
in alL 

As these clubs increase in length they increase in diameter (at the bot- 
tom) also. 

Two clubs must be made of each size, and each fellow in size should be 
as nearly as possible of the same weight as the other. They are usually 
made of hard wood, to withstand any accidental blow, for it will frequently 




1 



a 



Fig. 1. 

happen that they will be brought in contact one against the other, espe- 
cially by beginners. Again, it is for their weight that they are used j were 
it not for that, the using of them would not have the required effect. 

First Exercise. — Hold the smallest club in the right hand, and with 
the motion of the wrist only, give a circular motion to the club ; as from 
left to right, from right to left, from front to back, from back to front, as 
near as possible. The arm must be kept straight down at the side. Re- 
peat the exercise with the left hand. 



THE INDIAN CLUB. 



19 



Second Exercise. — Repeat the above exercise with the arm bent at the 
elbow, but the forearm must be kept perfectly still. 

Third Exercise, — Hold a small club in either hand, and repeat the above 
exercise, allowing- both the clubs to revolve the same way. 

Fourth Exercise. — The same exercise as last, but causing the clubs to re- 
volve in opposite directions, thus : let the left hand club go from left to 
right, whilst the right hand one goes from right to left, or vice versa. 

Fifth Exercise. — Repeat the same exercise with the arms extended in 
front, at the sides, or straight over the head. 

Sixth Exercise. — Reneat the last exercises, allowing the arm to be bent at 
the elbow. 

Seventh Exercise. — Repeat the last exercises with the elbow as the centre 
of the described circle instead of the wrist, placing the arm in the several 
relative positions. (See Fig. 1.) 

Eighth Exercise. — Exercise the arms in any of the foregoing exercises, with 
a large and small club at the same time, and one arm doing the same exer- 
cise as the other, or different. 

Ninth Exercise. — Lift the club to the shoulder, first 
with the right arm, then with the left, then both arms 
together. Then the clubs must be whirled slowly 
round the head (see Fig. 2), each arm being used 
alternately, and the foot of the club depressed to- 
ward the shoulder as the club passes round the head. 
The motions must be made slowly at first, and grad- 
ually increase in rapidity as the pupil becomes pro- 
ficient. 

Tenth Exercise. — The same exercise with two clubs, 
and both arms to revolve in the same, or in different 
directions. 

Eleventh Exercise. — Hold a club in either or both 
hands, with the arm bent at the elbow. Let the 
club lean on the shoulder first, then as low as possi- 
ble, and with the motion of the wrist only, carry the 
club out straight with the forearm. This should be 
done as if a blow were intended to be given. 

Twelfth Exercise. — Hold as large a club as possible, 
with the arm or arms extended in front or at the sides. 

Thirteenth Exercise. — Whilst holding out a club with one hand, achieve any 
of the aforementioned exercises with the other. 

Fourteenth Exercise. — Hold any of the clubs (the larger the better) in 
either or both hands, bring the hands up suddenly under the arm-pits, and 
drop them again as quickly as possible. 

Fifteenth Exercise. — Bring the hands up under the arm-pits, and extend 
them suddenly in front or at the sides with the clubs upright. 

Sixteenth Exercise. — Repeat the above exercises successively. The hands 




Fig. 2. 



20 



PARALLEL BARS OUT-DOORS. 



may be brought Tip under the arm-pits or to the shoulders, as most conve. 
nient, before proceeding with the next. 

In performing the last three exercises, the elbows must bo kept as high 
and as far back as possible. 

Seventeenth Exercise. — Hold a club in each hand with the arms extended 
at the sides, the hands to be kept as high as the shoulders, and the sides of 
the clubs, and if possible the hands, made to meet behind. 

Eighteenth Exercise. — Achieve any of the foregoing exercises whilst stand- 
ing on one leg. 

Nineteenth Exercise. — Aim at any imaginary object with either of the largest 
size clubs, allowing the blow to be given as if to descend on a man's head, and 
when the club shall have reached that imaginary point, it is to be brought to a 
sudden standstill, as if something had impeded its progress, and there held for 
a short time. This exercise should be done both in front and at the sides. 

Twentieth Exercise. — Repeat the above exercise with a club in each hand, 
the blows to be given both at the same time in front or at the sides, or with 
one in front and one at the side. 

PARALLEL BARS— OUT-DOORS. 




PABALLEL BABS. 



If the apparatus be intended for the open air, four posts must be fixed in 
the ground, perpendicular on the inside, eighteen or twenty inches apart at 
the ends, and about five feet six inches apart lengthways, which will give the 
form of a parallelogram. These posts should be about three feet six inches* 
above the ground, and made of fir poles, as near the same size as possible. 

The bars should be of elm, and free from knots, and should extend about 
a foot beyond the posts at each end, which will make them seven feet six 
inches long. They should not be perfectly round, but slightly flattened on 
both sides, and about two inches and a half in the longest diameter. 

There should be a kind of shoulder in those parts of the bars which rest 
on the posts, which will give additional strength to the bars. The ends 
should be slightly rounded, to fit the hollow of the hand. 
* Four feet would not be too high. 



TO GET OSf THE BARS. 



21 



/iA^ 



If this apparatus be erected in a building, we should recommend the 
posts to be made so as to allow the bars to be lifted higher, if required, and 
according to the height of the gymnast, or the height re- 
quired to perform the feat. 

Let the case for each post be made to allow a two-iDch 
square pillar to slide up and down inside it, thus: 

The case should be made of wood, from three-quarters of 
an inch to one inch in thickness, according to the strength of 
the wood used. 

Holes (represented by the dotted lines) must be bored 
through both pillar and post, into which an iron pin is put 
to keep the bar at the required height. 

These holes are to be made in the direction of the bars, 
about four inches apart, and six in number, counting from 
the top. All four pillars must be alike in every respect. 
The bars and posts should be neatly mortised together, and, for further secu- 
rity, a wooden peg should bo used instead of an iron one. 

1. — TO GET ON THE BARS. 

Stand between the bars, with the hands hanging close to the sides, spring 
up, place a hand on either bar, and keep yourself suspended. 

Another Method. — When the 
bars are about level with the top 
of the learner's hips, the hands 
must be placed on each bar, and 
the legs lifted from the ground, 
which will cause the whole 
weight of the body to be upon 
the arms; the head will now 
be thrown a little forward. 

All that is requisite for the 
learner to do now is to straight- 
en his arms, thereby raising 
his body into an upright posi- 
tion. (See Fig. 1.) 

This requires great strength 
In the wrists as well as in the 
! rms, and cannot be performed 
»«t by one who has strength in 
those parts. 

Practise this exercise with 
the fingers on the inside of the 
bars, as well as on the outside. 
2. — "Walktxg. 

Suspend yourself, as in No. 1, 
at the end of the bars, and move 




22 HOPPING. SWINGING. 

the hands alternately along them, which must be done without bringing the 
shoulders out of their place, or hasty and irregular steps being made, the 
body or legs twisted about, or any like irregularity. 

When the opposite end has been reached, the walk must be repeated 
backward to the point of starting. 

This will be a little tedious at first, but after a little practice it will be 
quite easy. 

This exercise must be repeated with the fingers on the inside of the bars. 

The arms must be kept perfectly straight, or you are liable to fall. 

3. — Hopping. 

This exercise tries the strength of the wrists very much, and to perform 
it the learner must mount between the bars as in the last, and instead of 
moving the hands alternately, they are to be moved both at the same time ; 
the legs are to be kept perfectly straight. 

Short steps should at first be taken, and increased in length gradually, as 
soon as the learner can do it with ease. 

4. — Swinging. 
In order to get a perfect freedom in the arms and wrists, the swing is an 
exercise to be practised. 

"While suspended between the bars, the learner must swing the legs and 




body to and fro ; very little at first, until he can with safety increase it 
The legs must be kept close together and straight. 

In increasing the swing, the legs must be made to do their utmost both in 
the forward and backward swing, and in either case the feet must be car- 
ried as high as the head, the higher the better. (See Fig. 2.) 

In the backward swing the body will be parallel with the bars. (See Fig. 3.) 



JUMPING. 

5. — Jumping. 



23 



This exercise is similar to the last, but in order to do it the learner must 
get his body into a good swing, the jump being made between the swing. 




Fig. 3. 



Owing to the variety of exercises to be achieved in this, we have, for the 
purpose of its being the better understood, divided it into parts. 




Mg. 4, 



First. — During the swing, advance the arms alternately, one in the for- 
ward and the other in the backward swing. 



24 



TIIE LONG LEAP. THE LONG RUN. 



Second. — Advance one arm alternately in the forward swing only. 

Tliird. — Advance one arm alternately in the backward swing only. 

Fourth. — Advance both arms at once in the forward swing only, as in Fig. 2. 

Fifth. — Advance both arms at once in the backward swing only, as in Fig. 3. 

Sixth. — Advance the arms in either the forward or backward swing. 

These exercises will be found to make the arms ache, but this will soon 
wear off after a few times practising. 

Keeping one leg (or both) up will make the exercise more difficult, yet 
this should be also practised. 

6. — The Long Leap. 
Great strength is required in this exercise. It is performed by swinging 
tho body at one end of the bars, and, with a sudden spring, jump to the 




Fig. 5. 



other end (or as far as you can), which must be done in the forward swing, 
and, in alighting on the bars again, let the arms be bent, as in Fig. 4. The 
position of the body in the forward spring is given in Fig. 5. 

1.— The Long Run. 

When the body has been swung as high as possible, and in the backward 
swing (see Fig. 3), make as many alternate movements of the hands along 
the bars as you can before you allow your legs to falL 

This must be repeated to the end of the bars. 

This exercise may also be done with the body in the forward swing, but 
this is much more difficult ; yet it is to be overcome by practice. 

8. — The Kick, or Spur. 
"While swinging, as described in No. 4, draw up either leg alternately, and 
send it out again with all your force ; or bring up both legs at once, but it 



TO BRING THE LEGS OVER. TO RISE AND FALL. 



25 



must be done in the back swing, and when the legs are high above the bars, 
or you are likely to feel the effects of your own kick. 

The sudden motion of the legs is likely to throw the body a little out of 
its balance, yet, grasping the bars firmly will prevent it, after a little prac- 
tice. 

9. — To Bring the Legs Over. 

Swing between the bars, and, with a gradual motion, throw both legs over 
the right-hand bat 




Fig 6. 



"VTith a sudden spring, bring the legs between the bars again, and throw 
them over the left bar. (See Fig. 6.) 

The hands must grasp the bars firmly in this and the next exercise. 

10. — To Rise and Fall Below the Bars, or the Letter L. 

Sit on the ground, grasp the bars with the hands on the outside, and pull 
yourself up gradually until the shoulders are level with the bars; then as 
gradually lower yourself, still keeping yourself in the same position, namely, 
the feet elevated and the legs straight, as in Fig. 7. It should be repeated 
two or three times. 

Difficult at first, but soon achieved by practice. 

This exercise may be done in ISTo. 1, when the legs are to be gradually 
raised until level with the bars. The knees are to be kept perfectly straight. 

11. — To Bise and Sink Down above the Bars. 
Mount between the bars as in Xo. 1, grasp them firmly, and lower the 
body gradually by bending the arms until you assume the position shown in 
2 



26 



TO RISE AND SINK DOWN. 



Fig. 8, but without allowing your feet to touch the ground, then gradually 
raise yourself by trying to straighten your arms ; this will put the whole 
strength of your muscles to their utmost. 



mv- 




Fig. 



Do not allow your body or legs to move or turn about, but take it 
easily, and after a few times trying you will become perfect master of it. 




Fig. 8. 



THE JANUS. 



27 



12. — The Janus. 

Mount between the bars m the middle, and throw a leg over each in front 
of your hands. 

G-rasp the bars firmly, and, with a spring, bring the legs between the 




Tig. 9. 



bars, and carry them behind you, but in so doing cross the legs, as in Fig. 
9, and in giving the body a slight twist, allow them to rest on the bars, 
when the right leg will be on the left-hand bar, and the left leg on the right- 




Fig. 10. 



hand bar. (See Fig. 10.) Do not always turn your body the same way, or 
let the same leg be always uppermost in crossing them. 

This exercise should be repeated five or six times successively. 



2S 



THE BARBER S CURL. 



13. — The Barber's Curl. 

Stand between the bars, and sink down until the head be below the bars. 
Grasp the bars with the hands and straighten the knees into a sitting pos- 
ture, thereby forming the letter L (Fig. ^). 




Fig 11. 



Now bring the legs gradually over between the arms (Fig. 1 1), till they 
perform a circle, or until they come nearly down to the ground (Fig. 12), 



=-*saih 




Fig. 12. 



and after staying in that position for a short time, bring them back again 
quite as slowly as you brought them over. 



THE TURNOVER. THE FORWARD SOMERSAULT. 



29 



The knees must be kept straight during the performance of this exercise, 
likewise the feet kept off the ground. 

Difficult to beginners, and makes the arms ache, but it is nevertheless 
easily performed after a little practice. 

Do not give it up in despair if unable to do it the first, or even the second 
time trying, for this is a very pleasing exercise, and tends greatly to 
strengthen the muscles of the arms, and likewise causes the grasp to be 
much firmer. 

14. — Tiie Turnover. 
Sit astride the bars as across a saddle, stretch your hands in front, fall 
forward, drop between the bars with a quick motion, and grasp the bars 
behind you, which will cause you to release your hold with your legs (see 
Fig. 13), and by bringing them together directly they are free of the bars, 
they will drop between them, when you may alight on the ground. 




Fig. 13. 



Try it slowly at first, so as to understand the mode of catching hold of 
the bars, and do not attempt to let go the bars with your legs until your 
hands have a firm hold, or when sure of not making a false aim at them. 

Gradually increase the quickness of the motion until you can achieve it 
without any pause, for it is necessary to do it quickly in order to do it 
properly. 

15.— The Forward Somersault. 

This feat is generally performed at the end of No. 2, or any other exer- 
cise which brings you to the end of the bars. It gives a very brilliant fin- 
ish to any of those exercises, and is not so difficult as may at first appear. 

"When you reach the ends of the bars with your hands firmly grasping 
the ends, as shown in Fig. 14, lean a little forward and bring the body into 
an upright position, with the legs bent over the head, and in so doing bend 
the arms, which will cause the shoulders to come between the bars, bring the 
legs over, and when you find yourself nearly overbalanced,give a slight spring 



30 



THE SPANISH FLY. 



times, 
cises. 



with the wrists, and let go your 
hold of the bars, when you will 
alight on your feet, but keep the 
toes pointed towards the ground. 

To beginners a slight swing 
will enable him to carry over his 
legs a little better, but in so doing 
the swing must not be too strong, 
or his head is very likely to go 
much farther than is required, 
and may cause him to measure 
his length on the ground. 

Do not mind if, in endeavoring 
to keep yourself on your feet af- 
ter reaching the ground, you fall 
forward or backward (the latter 
happens if you let go your hold 
too soon), for after you have ac- 
complished it at least five or six 
you will be more eager to go on to other and more difficult exer- 




16. — The Spanish Fly. 

This feat is a very brilliant finish when the gymnast is at the end of the 
bars : it is not so difficult as at first appears. 




"When at the end of the bars, place the hands over the ends, swing to and 
fro twice, making the back swing last, which must be made much higher 
than the bars, then open the legs, carry them over both bars, and by letting 
go your hold, alight on the ground. (See Fig. 15.) 



TO STAND ON THE BARS. THE HORIZONTAL BAR. 



In flying over the ends of the bars, let the body lean well forward, 
assisted with a slight spring of the hands, which will give you greater 
courage to let go, likewise a better and easier method of bringing your leg3 
together again without knocking them. 

The greater the impetus used in swinging, the greater will be the success 
of achieving the feat. 

It. — To Stand on the Bars. 

Place your hands on either bar, spring with your toes, and throw the right 
leg over. Bring the other leg up and hitch the toe under the bar (see Fig. 
16), lean the body forward, with the arms extended m front to balance 
yourself, then bring the other (right) foot on the bar, as close as possible to 




Fig. 16. 



the body, and by means of the toe under the bar, with which you are to 
steady yourself, raise your body up so as to stand on the right leg. Do not 
unhitch the toe until you are firmly standing on the bent leg. 

Now gradually lower yourself again, taking care how you slide the toe 
along under the bar, and likewise to maintain a good balance. 

THE HORIZONTAL BAR. 

For Oui-doors.— -Three 
posts, one lower than 
the other two, are to be 
fixed in the ground 
about six feet apart, 
and a bar to be fixed 
in either two of them, as 
in the annexed cut. 

The bars, if made of 
wood, to be about a 
\uarter of an inch more 



TO HANG ON THE BAR. 



in diameter than the parallel bars, as greater strength is required in some 
of the exercises, during the performance of which the bar is very much bent. 
If these bars be made of iron, they should be much smaller, and should 
not be used if rusty, but first rubbed with a piece of coarse sand-paper, 
otherwise the clothes will suffer. We prefer the wooden bar for several 
reasons, and therefore recommend it. 

For Jn-doors. — Two posts, about eight inches square, are to be so fixed as 

to withstand any amount of work 
— 2 on the bar without being loosened 
in the ground. 

Previous to their being fixed, a 
groove about six feet long should 
be cut through each post to about 
eighteen inches from the ground. 
About twelve or fourteen holes 
should be bored through the post 
within the length of the groove 
for an iron pin to pass through, 
to keep the bar at the required 
height. 

The bar may be of the same 
length and size as required for 
the out-door, but it should have a 
small shoulder at each end, in or- 
der to rest firmly against each 
post, thus: 




HORIZONTAL BAK. 



& 



§> 



The bar may then be lifted to any height required. 

18. — To Hang on the Bar. 
Jump up and lay hold of the bar with both hands, let the . thumbs be 
on the same side of the bar as the fingers, and likewise the knuckles as 
far upward as possible. 



WALKING. JUMPING. SWINGING. 



33 



Grasp the bar firmly without any fear of not being able to retain your 
hold for a long time, and alternately take away the right and left hands. 

Suspend yourself as long as convenient, but do not overtire yourself, 
and in dropping from the bar be careful to alight on the toes. 

19. — Walking. 

Grasp the bar as in the last, and move the hands alternately along the 
bar, beginning with short and even steps, increase their length until able 
to take them with ease, and when capable of so doing, place one hand on 
either side of the bar, and proceed as above, but the hands must now ad- 
vance one before the other, and in returning walk backwards. 

Keep the legs straight and the toes pointing to the ground, and do not 
move them about in performing this exercise. 

20. — Jumping. 
This exercise is performed in the same manner as the last but the hands 
must move both at the same time instead of alternately. 

The legs may be bent a little, to assist the learner in making the spring. 

21. — Swinging. 
Hang by the hands about the middle of the bar, move the legs and body 
to and fro as if on a common swing, and after a little practice you will find 
your body rise level with the bar. (See Fig. 17.) 




Fig. IT. 

Do not be afraid of swinging too high, as many feats, to be hereafter 
mentioned, depend greatly on the neatness of the swing. 

Swing to and fro at least a dozen times, not more, and in leaving the bar 
do so in the forward swing, and when your feet are rising to a level with 
your face, when you must let go your hold, and with a motion of the body 
alight on the toes. 
2* 



34 



TO RISE AND FALL. THE PANCAKE. 




This is a very neat way to leave the bar, and the farther the gymnast can 
alight on his feet from the bar, the greater will be his after success, and the 
more graceful will his performance appear. 

Above all, avoid jerking the legs in swinging. 

22. — To Kise and Fall. 

This exercise is very similar to Xo. 10, but this sometimes receives the 

name of breasting the bar ; it 
is, nevertheless, nothing more 
than the pulling up of the 
body as high as the arms will 
allow. 

Hang on the bar, and grad- 
ually pull yourself up until 
your breast is as high as the 
bar, then steadily lower your- 
self again. (See Fig. 18.) 

Repeat this five or six 
times at least, and if not able 
to succeed in doing it the first 
time of trying, do not de- 
spair, for on this exercise 
likewise depends the being 
able to accomplish many 
others, as it tends greatly 
to strengthen the muscles of 
the arms and the wrists. 

23. — The Letter L. 

This exercise only differs 

from the last in one respect, 

that instead of the legs being 

Fi s- 1S » allowed to hang straight, 

they are brought to a right 

angle with the body, thereby forming the letter L, and in this position raise 

the body as in the last exercise. (See Fig. 7.) 

This will seem more difficult to the learner than Xo. 10, partly owing to 
jAe difference in the position of the body ; but practice will soon overcome 
that difficulty. 

24. — The Pancake. 

proceed as described in No. 21, and when the body has swung nearly as 
nigh as the bar, let go your hands, and after bringing them smartly together 
(see Fig. 19), renew your hold on the bar, and continue to swing. Perse- 
vere in doing it until able to do it with ease and perfection ; the former only 




t"o TC^N A PANCAKE. TO BRING THE BODY THROUGH. 35 

to be obtained by constant practice, while the latter consists in the smart- 
ness with which the hands are brought together. 

The farther the gymnast springs from the bar, the greater the effect. 




Fig. 19. 

This exercise should be repeated three times before allowing the feet to 
touch the ground. It is a difficult exercise to beginners, but very soon over- 
come. 

The bar should be about two feet above the head of the gymnast, when 
standing on the ground 



25. — To Turn a Pancake. 

Proceed as described in No. 21, and every time the body is in the for- 
ward swing (when the back will be toward the ground), give a smart turn, 
letting go the bar and grasping it again quickly, before the body has time to 
descend 

After a little practice, the body should be turned every time, thereby 
preventing it from descending in the backward swing, consequently the 
gymnast has the opportunity of seeing which way he goes. 

The gymnast will find that he will improve in this exercise every time he 
practises it. 

26. — To Bring the Body Through. 

Hang on the bar as before described, and with a gradual motion bring 
the legs up toward the bar, bend the knees, pass them between the arms 
under the bar, and allow the legs to pass through, together with the body, 



36 



TTIE EVERLASTING TWIST. TO HANG BY THE LEGS. 



which must fall as low as the arms will allow; when the body, arms, and 
logs ought to bo nearly in a hue with each other. (See Pig. 20.) 

After remaining in that position for a short time, return through the arms 
again, without allowing tho hands to loose their hold, or tho feet to touch 
the ground. 

It will be found very difficult for beginners to return ; until able to do so, 

I release the hands and fall to 
the ground; but after a little 



practice, especially with a 
little assistance at first, it 
will become very much easier 
than it would at first appear. 

27. — The Everlasting 
Twist. 

This is an excellent exer- 
cise, and one we strongly re- 
commend, as in performing 
it the gymnast must, if he 
have not yet done so, sus- 
pend himself by one hand, 
thereby testing the strength 
of each wrist. 

Proceed as last described, 
but in lieu of bringing the 
body again through the arms, 
let go one hand, when the 
body will swerve completely 
round, grasp the bar again, 
and repeat the exercise as 
often as convenient. If it 
be done six times without 
stopping, and always letting 
go the same hand, it will ap- 
pear as if the arm was being twisted completely round. 

"We have always found the above give the greatest satisfaction, and we 
should therefore recommend its constant practice and attention. 
Do not always use the same hand. 




Fig. 20. 



28. — To Hang ry tece Legs. 

Bring the legs through as described in Xo. 2G, and throw the legs 
over the bar instead of allowing them to fall toward the ground. Rest 
them as shown in Eig. 21, bending them over the bar as far and as firm as 
possible, let go the hands and allow them to hang loosely. 

After remaining in that position as long as convenient, bring the arms up, and 



CIRCLING THE BAR. 



37 



by drawing the body up a 
little, grasp the bar again and 
allow your body, after having 
unhitched your legs, to fall as 
in No, 2G, and drop to the 
ground, taking care to alight 
on the toes. 

Another method will be 
described in a future exercise, 
as it will be necessary to 
achieve one or two exercises 
to bring the body ab£)ve the 
bar in order to sit on it. 

29. — Circling the Bar. 

This, to a beginner, is a dif- 
ficult and annoying exercise. 
Difficult because he is very 
likely to be a long time before 
he be able to do it to perfec- 
tion; annoying because his 
shins are sure to suffer if he 
does not go over the bar 
as he intended. Yet when 
once accomplished, no exer- 
cise will be found more easy. 

Hang on the bar and pro- 
ceed with No. 26, but carry 
the legs above the bar, in- 
stead of under, and by pulling 
the body up with the arms, 
and a slight motion of the 
wrist, carry the legs com- 
pletely over the bar, and in 
going over they will act as a 
sort of balance to your body, 
and with the assistance of 
-our arms, the body will be 
brought into the required po- 
sition. 

As a means of enabling a 
young gymnast to circle the 
bar sooner than by the meth- 
od just described, only let 
him fix the bar about as high 




Fig. 2L 




Fig. 22. 



38 



THE LEVER. THE SUSPENDER. 



as his chin, when, after having placed his hands on the bar, and with a step 
forward, he might give his legs that impetus upward, which will carry him 
over the bar quickly as possible, but in so doing the legs must be 




Fig. 23. 

straightened (see Fig. 22), and carried over the bar by the simultaneous 
motion of the arms, especially the wrists. This will, in a very short time, 



I 



• 




Fig. 24. 
enable him to do it as first described, when the bar should be raised high 
enough to cause the gymnast to jump in order to reach it 



the lever. the suspended bar, or trapeze. 39 

30. — The Lever. 

This exercise requires great strength in the muscles of the arms, and is 
only to be achieved by practice, and with a determination to succeed. 

Gro through the arms as in No. 26, keep the legs perfectly straight with 
the body, and gradually lower them until level with the ground as in Fig. 23. 
After remaining in that position a short time, either drop to the ground, or 
carry the body back again through the arms ; the latter should be preferred. 

31. — The Suspender. 

This exercise is meant to test the strength of the grasping of the bar with 
one leg. 

Stand under the bar and grasp it with both hands, one on either side, and 
with a sudden spring throw the right leg over the bar toward the left ; 
then place the toes of the left foot under the bar, as in Fig. 24; let go the 
hands, and allow your body to lower itself as much as possible, remaining 
in that position as long as convenient. 

The hands may either hang loosely, as in Fig. 24, or be folded across the 
chest. 

Repeat the exercise by reversing the position of the legs. 

The leg under the bar must be kept perfectly straight 

*** THE SUSPENDED BAR, OR TRAPEZE, 

This is preferable to what is generally termed the "triangle," for two rea- 
sons : first, the ropes need not be but one-half the length ; second, the gym- 
nast can perform a greater number of the horizontal bar feats with the sus- 
pended bar than with the triangle. It is constructed thus, — two ropes are 
suspended from the ceiling or roof of the building, by means of crooks, each 
rope to have a loop at each end, cased with iron, to prevent its wearing 
away. 

A bar of tough wood, about twenty-eight inches long, is hung on to the 
ropes by means of crooks fixed to the ends of the bar, thus : 




Fig. A. 



F 



Fig. B. 



40 



THE TURN. 



The crook in Fig. A is screwed into the end, and the wood is kept from 
splitting by an iron ring or cap, represented by the shaded part. 

The crook in Fig. 13 is screwed through the cap and bar, and kept in its 
place by an iron nut. 

An extra iron ring should be fixed in the lower end of each rope, to enable 
the bar to be hitched on the more readily, the ring to be about the size of 
the crook. 

The ropes should not be less than five-eighths of an inch in diameter, and 
six feet six inches long. 

32. — The Tttrn. 
Place the left hand on the bar, with the fingers backward, and the thumb 
in front of the bar, close to the left-hand rope, which must be grasped with 





Fig. 25. 



Fig. 26. 



the right hand about the height of the shoulder, then cany your body 
round the left-hand rope, and by lifting your legs over the bar resume your 
position on it. 

Do the same with the right-hand rope, only let the left hand be upper- 
most. (See Fig. 25.) 

The rope must be grasped as shown above. 



TO STAND ON THE BAR. THE OVERTHROW. 



41 



33. — To Stand ox the Bar. 
First sit on the bar, grasp the ropes as high as possible, and with a 
gradual motion, similar to Xo. 10. pull yourself up until you can place your 
feet on the bar , then place the hands a little higher, to ease yourself, or pro- 
ceed with the next exercise. 

34.— To Stand at Ease. 

Turn your back against one of the ropes, with your feet on the bar, but 
the toes turned out (see Fig. 26), and when perfectly steady, fold the arm3 
across the chest. 

Do this against either rope, and do not always keep the same foot in front. 





Fig. 27. 



Fig. 2S. 



The feet may be placed as in Fig. 26, or the front foot may be slided for- 
ward, so as to rest the hollow of it against the bottom of the rope, and the 
other laid across it, as when sitting in a chair a person stretches out his 
legs for ease and comfort. 

35. — The Overthrow. 
Stand on the bar and grasp the ropes firmly, as shown in Fig. 21, which 
fhows that the knuckles are in front, and the thumbs downward, the elbows 



42 TO STAND ON THE HEAD. THE BEST. THE SWING. 

may be a little up, but the hands should be as high as the hips ; then, by 
leaning forward and lifting your feet off the bar, allow yourself to turn quite 
over, when you may cither alight on the bar in the sitting posture, or place 
your feet on the bar again; the latter you will be able to do if your hands 
be high enough before you turn over. 

This exercise may be reversed, and the best description or idea how it 
should be done will be to advise the learner to notice the position of his 
arms and hands after he has accomplished the above exercise, and reverse 
the motion of the body on turning over. 

36. — To Stand on the Head. 

Grasp the ropes about a foot above the bar, after having first knelt on it; 
then, with a motion similar to the last, throw your legs upward open them 
and place them against the ropes to steady yourself, then lower the body, 
and place the head on the bar. 

After a little practice the young gymnast will be able t© let go his hold 
of the ropes and fold his arms across his chest, or in any other position ; 
but he must be very careful how he does it the first time. 

The hands should be placed as shown in Fig. 27. 

3i. — The Best. 

This exercise is very similar to the above. 

Sit on the bar, grasp the ropes, slide down until the bar touches the back 
of the neck, and in so doing, throw the legs up and rest the feet against 
the ropes. (See Fig. 28.) 

The body must be bent a little at the hips. 

The hands may be folded across the chest, or placed as shown in 
Fig. 23. 

Care must be taken in this as well as the last, for a slip might cause you 
to repent of not having paid sufficient attention to the advice given. 

33. — The Swing. 

In swinging with the suspended bar, the ropes are sure to sway to and 
fro, and in thus swinging, the force required must be given at the right 
time, otherwise the ropes might check you. 

It would give additional beauty to this exercise if the young gymnast 
were to perform any other exercise during the swaying of the bar, as Xos. 
22, 26, or 29, or any other that he might select. 

The leg-swing must be made while hanging by the legs, as in Xo. 23, 
when the arms must be well used to accomplish the exercise, to give satis- 
faction. 

Do not omit to keep your feet well toward the ground in the leg-swing, 
after having once set yourself in motion. 



THE CATCH. THE LEAP. THE SUSPENDED ROPES. 



43 



39.— The Catch. 
Sit on the bar without holding, and, in throwing yourself back, open the 
legs wide, and turn the toes outward, when they will hitch around the rope, 
as shown in Fig. 2D. After remaining in 
that position for a short time, pull the 
body up and grasp the bar, when you 
can easily unhitch the feet. 

40. — The Leap. 

After achieving No. 38, and when 
you think yourself high enough from 
the ground, let go the bar and alight 
on it, either in the forward or back- 
ward swing, but let the toes bear the 
weight of the body on alighting, and 
not the heels. 

This should be practised with a slight 
swing &t first, as the position of the 
body is not the same on alighting with 
the forward as with the backward 
swing. After a little practice, the gym- 
nast may try how far he can leap from 
the bar. The higher the swing, the 
farther will be the leap. 

THE SUSPENDED ROPES. 

This rope is supposed to be about six 
feet six inches long. The top loop-hole 
is protected by an iron ring, similar to 
those with the bar just mentioned. The 
middle loop is formed by tying the rope 
as represented, the bottom of the loop 
to be about three feet from the lower 
loop, which ought to be bound with 
some kind of metal,* both to protect 
the hands from rubbing against the ropes, and to keep the loop always in 
the same shape; otherwise, when the hands are in them, and the whole 
weight of the body off the ground, they will be very much squeezed, owing 
to the ropes not retaining their proper position. 

The top and bottom loops should be spliced to the required size. The 
lower loop to be about eight inches long, and about five inches in diameter 
near the bottom, which will give, very nearly, the shape of the battledore. 

The ropes are to be the same size required for the bar. 
* Brass is mostly used, and is not liable to rust. 




44 SIMPLICITY. THE BARBER S CURL. THE EVERLASTING CURL. 



A few knots may be tied in these ropes to facilitate the 
climbing of them ; but this should be done after the rope 
has been well stretched, or at least sufficient room should 
be left between any knots previously tied for an additional 
one, in case the rope should be at any time too low. 

Many parties prefer these ropes joined at the top, and 
in many gymnasiums this is found very useful ; the rings 
on the top are firmly bound in with tar-core, after which 
each single rope is bound round a few times to prevent 
the rings from slipping out of their places. 

The knots and loops in both ropes must correspond, 
and the middle loops must, if possible, hang outward 
when the ropes are suspended, and not hang between 
them, or the feet are liable to be caught in them whilst 
performing an exercise requiring the feet in the air. 

41. — Simplicity. 

Grasp the bow ends of the ropes, one in each hand, 
throw the legs up as quickly as possible, something simi- 
lar to No. 13, only much quicker, and on the feet falling 
to the ground, let go the ropes and alight on the ground. 

Difficult as it may appear to beginners, there is not one 
more simple when accomplished. 

The quicker this exercise is done, the more likely is the 
gymnast to succeed, and after trying it a few times he will 
be able to alight on his feet in safety. 

42. — The Barber's Curl. 
This exercise is described in No. 13 ; but instead of 
grasping the bar, the loops must be grasped (see Fig. 30), 
and in doing it the ropes must be perfectly steady, and 
not allowed to sway to and fro. 

43. — The Everlasting Curl. 
This exercise differs from the other two just mentioned, 
insomuch that the feet must not touch the ground, and 
ere that can be allowed the gymnast will have to undergo a very severe pun- 
ishment, which we shall not here attempt to describe, but will leave him 
to proceed as in the last, and on the feet coming down, spread the arms a 
little, when he will find that his arms will seem to come out of their sockets ; 
but heed it not, for this exercise when done three or four times without 
stopping, will give extra freeness in the use of the arms, and likewise give 
greater satisfaction to any one who may see it done. 

In doing this exercise, say three or four times without stopping, the feet 
are not to touch ,-ie ground under any pretence whatever, and when able 
to do it without feeling the least unpleasant sensation, we will leave the 



TIIE LIFT. THE LEVER. THE TWIST 



45 




Fig. 30. 



young gymnast to judge of the injuries or 
benefits obtained by the practising of it. 
44. — Another Method. 

Proceed as last described, but allow the 
feet to touch the ground, and spring very 
slightly every time you carry up the legs. 

This should bo repeated both backward 
and forward as often as possible; it will 
make you very giddy, but will soon wear 
off after reversing the motion of the body. 

The ropes must not be let go until the 
exercise be finished, but allowed to twist 
up as many times as the gymnast goes 
round. 

45. — The Lift. 

Grasp the ropes and throw the legs up 
as before, but in so doing, straighten 
them and keep them upright. Keep your 
body down, and do not let it be bent, nor 
the feet touch the ropes. (Sec Fig. 31.) 

"When in this position, pull yourself up 
as far as possible, and let your body fall 
suddenly, still keeping the legs and body 
in the same position. 

This is a good exercise, and tends to 
make the gymnast keep a firm hold of the 
ropes. 

4G. — The Lever. 
This exercise is described in Xo. SO, the 
only difference being in the position of 
the hands. 

47.— The Twist. 

This is a very difficult exercise both to 
achieve and to describe. 

Hang by the hands and throw the legs 
over ; but before allowing them to fall too 
far, give the body a twist so as to bring 
the back (the nearer the middle of the 
back the better) against the arm toward 
which you turn, and in so doing, let go 
the other rope, and keep yourself sus- 
pended as long as agreeable. (See Fig. 32.) 

The legs and disengaged arm must be kept extended as far as possible, 




Fig. 3L 



46 



THE LETTER L. THE STRETCH. THE CHANGE. 



and the body must incline a little backward, for it to rest on the arm more 
securely. 

Great practice is required before a beginner might be able to accomplish 
the difficult part of this exercise, as it not only tries the strength of the 
muscles of the arm, but the twist given at the shoulder, and the difficulty 




Fig. 32. 



found in balancing the body evenly, causes many to abandon the exercise 
as impossible. But when a young gymnast has once achieved it, he will feel 
a pride in doing it before those who before deemed it impossible. 

48. — The Letter L. 

This exercise is described in No. 10, the hands here grasping the loops 
instead of the bars. 

49. — The Stretch. 

After rising as high as possible, as in the last exercise, bring one hand 
to the front and stretch the other out (see Fig. 33) : the loop in the front 
must be grasped firmly, whilst the other is kept in the required position by 
the open hand, as seen below, the fingers being extended, and the whole 
strain falling on the hollow of the hand. 

This should be done with both hands. The legs should be kept perfectly 
straight, or they may be made use of as if ascending a flight of stairs, the 
slower the better. 

50. — The Change. 

Proceed as last described, and after bringing one hand in front, let go the 
other, and keep yourself suspended for a short time ; then grasp the other 
loop and do the same with that one, changing as often as convenient. 

This is a very clever and amusing exercise, and one which should be per- 
severed in. 

51. — To Mount between the Ropes. 

This is another very trying exercise, but, like No. 46, the shoulders will 
reap the full benefit. 



THE TURN-OVER. 



41 



Rise between the ropes as in No. 49, and "with a sudden turn of the arms 
(one at a time at first) bring the elbows uppermost (see Fig. 34), when you 
may gradually straighten them by raising the body. 

This exercise should be persevered in until achieved, as it will enable the 
gymnast to be the better able to do the next. 





Fig. 33. 



Fig. 84. 



52. — The Turn-Over. 

Whilst mounted between the ropes as in the last, but previous to straight- 
ening them, this exercise must be done. 

Lean forward, throw the legs (backward) over the head, allowing them 
to fall to the ground, still retaining your hold of the ropes. 

After a little practice, let go the ropes on alighting on the ground, but be 
careful how you do it at first. 

This is a difficult exercise, but perseverance will soon overcome the diffi- 
culty. 



4S 



TO CLIMB THE ROPE. THE SPRING. 




53. — To Climb the Hope. 

"We have introduced this exer- 
cise here, as it will be required 
sometimes to reach the cross-pieco 
at the top, in lieu of doing either 
of the other exercises. 

There are two ways of climbing 
the rope. 

First — Grasp the rope with both 
hands, and move them alternately 
one above the other, and in order 
to support yourself whilst so doing, 
the feet must be used by pressing 
the rope between them, as shown 
at a, Pig. 35, where the feet are 
crossed and the rope is pressed by 
the top foot against the under one. 

Second. — Grasp the rope with 
both hands, and without the aid of 
your feet move your hands alter- 
nately one above the other, but in 
so doing the gymnast will have to 
make use of the rise and fall exer- 
cise with one hand only, whilst he 
raises the other. 

These climbing exercises should 
be practised on a rope free from 
knots, and not too small. 

On descending the rope, do so 
by reversing the motion of the 
feet and hands, or the hands only. 
Bo not let the rope slip through your hands, as the friction caused by so 
doing will be sure to rub the skin off, and perhaps cut the flesh to the bone. 

54. — The Spring. 

This exercise is somewhat similar to that described in IsTo. 41, but it will 
be found a little more difficult at first to perform. 

Grasp the ropes as in No. 41, and in bringing the legs over open them 
so as to pass one on either side of the ropes, which must be brought closer 
together (see Fig. 36), then, when nearly over, let go the ropes and alight on 
the ground. 

Do this exercise also with one rope only, when both hands must be in 
the same rope. 

Thi3 is a very clever feat, but it must be done quickly to succeed. 



Fig. 35, 



THE JERK. THE DESCENT. 



49 



55. — The Jerk. 

G-rasp the ropes, one in either hand, and 
throw the right leg over the right arm (as 
in Fig. 37), or the left leg over the left arm, 
letting the other leg hang loosely in front. 
Xow with a sudden jerk, and at the same 
time extend the disengaged arm a little, 
throw the body forward with as great an 
impetus as possible, when you will turn 
completely over, and in so doing you must 
not let go your hold, neither must the leg 
slip off the arm. 

This is a very difficult exercise, and 
requires great nerve and practice for it. 

56. — The Descent. 
This exercise must be doDe on a single 
rope, and the higher it is fixed from the 
ground the better. It should be at least 
from fifteen to twenty feet long, and a 56 lb. weight should be attached to 
the lower end of it, which should be about a foot from the ground. 




Ti ? . 36. 




Fig. a?. 



50 



THE REVOLVER. THE GIANT STRIDE. 



Climb the rope as far as you 



and let it hang in front of yon, 
and come down between the 
legs. Bring the right leg round 
the rope, and hitch the foot 
around it again; and having 
so done, bring the right arm in 
front of the rope (as in Fig. 38), 
when you may descend very 
gradually, according to the 
strain put against the rope by 
the leg around it. 

The other leg must hang 
loosely. 

To give this feat a greater ef- 
fect, the weight should be 
twirled round; this will cause 
you also to turn round as you 
descend. 

The hands, whilst descending, 
should be placed in as graceful 
an attitude as possible. 

57. — The Revolver. 

G-rasp the ropes, one in each 
hand, throw the legs up and 
hitch one (right) foot in one of 
Fig. 3a the loops, (the right), and in so 

doing, let go your hold of the loop in which you hitch your foot, and grasp 
the other rope with that hand (the right), carrying the other (left) leg over, 
and allow it to hang down. 

Take care on carrying the leg over as just described, that the (right) foot 
does not slip out of the loop. 

Now with both hands grasping the one rope, and one foot in the other, 
pull yourself up by moving the hands alternately, and when up a sufficient 
height, place the other foot (left) in the spare loop, and grasp a rope with 
each hand. 

Cross the feet one over the other, to keep them together, and pass the 
arms to the front, grasping the ropes, as above shown, about the height of 
the hips, lean forward, throwing your feet up slightly behind, and you will 
turn completely over. 




THE GIANT STRIDE 






Consists of a pole, with a swivel at the summit, to which several ropes of 
equal length are attached, with small cross-sticks at their extremities. The 
boys take hold of the cross-stick or handle with one hand, grasping the rope 



THE LADDER. 



51 



with the other (see Illustration), and starting together, commence running 
round the pole, leaning the 
chief weight of the body on 
the hands, and only letting 
the tips of the toes touch the 
ground at intervals. Care 
must be taken to keep time, 
so that no runner trips up the 
companion in front of him, as 
this will disorder the whole 
economy of the exercise. 
After a time, a great velocity 
will be attained, and a mere 
occasional touch of the toes 
on the ground will be suffi- 
cient to carry the players 
round and round the course, 
literally with giant strides. 
Care must be taken that the 
boys vary the direction in 
which they run. In all gym- 
nastic exercises they should 
be taught to depend upon the 
right leg and left leg. and 
right arm and left arm equally; and a habit of running in one direction with 
the giant stride, say from right to left, would give the right arm and right 
leg too much work, and develop them at the expense of the left limbs. 

THE LADDER 

The first use of the ladder exercises in 
gymnastics is to give confidence to the boy, 
and to teach him to depend on his power of 
balancing himself, in mounting or descending, 
without the aid of his hands. To do this, 
keep the knees a little bent, and hold the 
hands slightly forward in front of the chest, 
as shown in the illustration. Keep the body 
always in the same position, fixing the eye 
upon one point — for instance, the fourth 
rung of the ladder above the lower foot — and 
take care that the eye moves upward in the 
same ratio with the feet, always keeping four 
rungs above the step on which the lower 
foot is resting. Observe the same rules in. 
descending the ladder. 





52 STILTS. TRICKS AND FEATS OF GYMNASTICS. 

To mount the ladder by the hands, stand underneath it and grasp the 
sides of the ladder, above your head, and work the hands alternately up- 
ward, slightly drawing up the body by the elbows, keeping the feet quite 
still. 'Work your way downward in the same manner. To mount with the 
hands by the steps, stand under the ladder, grasping the highest rung you 
can reach with both hands ; then raising yourself by the elbows, grasp at 
the next rung, and so work your way up till you get to the highest. De- 
scend in the same manner. 

STILTS 

Are useful in teaching boys to maintain a balance ; a thing many boys 
of larger growth lind rather difficult of achievement. Of course 
learners should never practise with stilts fastened at the 
knees, such as we see used by exhibitors, for a fall from a 
pair of stilts of such construction would be exceedingly dan- 
gerous. The stilts should be long poles or bars of wood, 
with cross-pieces screwed to them for the feet to rest on. 
There should be nothing like straps or bands to fasten the stilts 
to the feet or legs. The learner must place the stilts in a slightly 
inclined position against a wall; then, with his face turned 
fcpm the wall, let him place himself between the stilts, 
and put his right foot up to the footboard of the right stilt, and 
thence mount to the left. Thus he will stand in the stilts leaning 
against the wall, with the upper part of the stilts resting against 
his shoulder-blades, his hands grasping the stilts at the sides, 

and his chest thrown well forward. Then let him set off and try to walk. 

TRICKS AND FEATS OF GYMNASTICS. 

The Book. — Fix an old book between the toes of the feet, and, by a jerk, 
throw it over the head. 

The Chalk Line. — Draw a line with chalk on the floor ; against this place 
the toes of both feet ; then kneel down and rise up again without leaving 
the line, or using the hands. 

Stepping Through.— Take a small piece of cane about a foot long, and 
holding it between the hands, leap through it. Afterward take a tobacco- 
pipe, and perform the same feat without breaking ; after this, join the hands 
together, and leap through them, which is not very difficult of accomplish- 
ment. 

Armless. — Lying upon the back with the arms across the chest, the 
attempt must be made to rise on the feet again. 

Hop Against the Wall. — Stand with one toe close against the wall, about 
two feet from the ground, and turn the other over it, without removing the 
toe from the walk 

Stoop if You Can. — One boy having placed his heels against the wall, 
another must place near his toes a dime, and tell him he may have it if he 




THICKS AND FEATS OF GYMNASTICS. 



53 




can pick it up. This he will find to be impossible for him to do while his 
heels touch the wall, as there is no room for his back to balance the other 
parts of his body. 

Tlie Spring from the Wall. — Placing yourself at a 
proper distance from the wall with your face opposite 
to it, throw yourself forward until you support yourself 
by one hand. Then spring back into your former 
position. Begin this feat at a short distance from the 
wall, and increase the distance by degrees. The 
"athlete" will, in a short time, be able to stand at 
nearly the length of his body from the wall. This feat 
is sometimes called the palm spring, but the palm has 
really nothing to do with it. The thumb spring is 
similar, but dangerous, and many have sprained their 
thumbs in attempting it. 

The Long Beach. — This is a somewhat difficult feat, and requires great cau- 
tion in its performance. A line is chalked on the floor, at which the toes 
must be placed, and from which they are not to remove. The left hand is 
then to be thrown forward in a long reach until the body descends upon it, 
without any part touching the floor in its de- 
scent j the right hand is now to be stretched 
out as far forward as possible, and with a piece 
of chalk a mark is made on the floor at its fullest 
extent, the body being sustained by the left 
hand during the operation. The boy should 
now recover the upright position on his legs, 

by springing back from the left hand without touching the floor in any way. 
The length reached, and the perfection with which the body recovers itself, 
distinguishes the winner of the game. 

The Stooping Stretch. — In this feat a line is 
drawn on the floor, at which the outer edge of 
the left foot is placed, and behind this, at a short 
distance, the right heel. Taking a piece of chalk 
in the left hand, the youngster passes it be- 
tween the legs, and under the bend of the left 
knee, chalking the floor with it as far forward as 
he can. He then recovers his position without moving his feet from the 
line at which they had been fixed. 

The Chair Feat— Place 
three chairs in the situation 
indicated in the cut, and lie 
down upon them, the head 
resting on one, the heels upon 
another, and the lower part of 
the body on the third or mid- 






5± 



TRICKS AND FEATS OV GYMNASTICS. 



die chair, which should bo much lighter than the others. Then, by stiffening 
the body and limbs, and throwing up the chest into a state of rigidity, it 
will not be difficult for a boy to remove the middle chair, and to pass it 
quite over on the other side of him. 

The Poker Feat. — Take a common poker and hold it 
the lower end downward, in the manner shown in the 
cut, i. e., by the fingers, thumb, and ball of the palm. 
Then, by the mere motion of the fingers and thumb, 
and the fulcrum of the palm, work the poker upward 
till you raise it through the whole length to that part 
of it which goes into the fire. This trick depends 
mainly upon the strength of the muscles of the hand 
and fingers, combined with a certain knack to be ac- 
quired by practice. 

The Stick Feat, or from Hand to Mouth. — Take a piece 
of stick of the length of the fore-arm, measuring from the elbow to the 
end of the middle finger. Hold it in the hand horizontally before you, the 
knuckles being down and the nails upward, and the elbow being on a fine 
with the hand. Then raise the left end of the stick from the breast to 
the mouth, without any other movement of the hand than the arm at the 
wrist. This is a difficult feat, but may be easily acquired by practice. 





THE STICH FEAT. 



SKATING. THE START. 55 



SKATING. 




L<& 



Skattng is deservedly popular. To become a graceful and accomplished 
skater requires practice, after a study of the principles involved. These 
things are preliminary to success: The skate to be properly made and 
securely fastened ; and the skater to get rid of fear. 

Skates may be had in variety — some "with high irons and some with low ; 
some with narrow and some with broad irons ; some with the bottom of the 
irons ground at right angles with the sides, and some with a groove run- 
ning lengthways through the bottom of the iron. 

For beginners a rather low iron is best, and squarely ground. Indeed, 
the grooved are apt to fill with ice, or "ball" in the groove; and the young 
skater, instead of "cutting High Dutch," will be cut by a falL 

In fastening the skates, those are to be preferred with three straps, one 
of which comes around the toes, one around the instep, and one from just 
below the heel to a spot above the instep. Three small spikes, to fit in 
corresponding holes in the boot-heel, should be in the heel of the skate. 
The iron should be at right angles with the surface of the wood, and the 
holes in the strap should be at a short distance from each other, so as to 
avoid looseness in the strapping, on the one side, and undue pressure on the 
foot, on the other. i 

THE START. 

TTe will suppose the novice's skates have been fastened on for him, and 
he stands on his feet, on a well-selected piece of ice, neither so smooth as 
to increase the difficulty he will find in keeping his feet, nor so rough as to 



56 



SKATING. 



trip him up. As soon as he stands upright, he should start at once. In- 
clining his body a little forward toward the right leg, he slides forward, with 
his whole weight on the right foot, which must be slightly turned outward, 

his other foot being- slightly 
raised off the ice, and kept 
behind the right. (See Il- 
lustration.) He then bring3 
the left foot forward, in 
its turn, and slides a yard 
or two on that foot, and 
so on alternately. Ho 
may, at first, make use of 
Ms hands to maintain his 
balance, raising or depress- 
ing them, with the fingers 
turned upward. He should, 
however, aim at skating, 
after a short time, entirely 
without the use of his 
arms, which look much 
better hanging carelessly 
by the side, than flung 
wildly about in wind-mill fashion. Some learners make use of a stick 
at first starting. This we think a bad plan. It is better, at first, to have 




Fig. 1. 





STARTING OFF. 



the support of a companion, who can skate (Fig. 1), and, by degrees, he may 
leave you to your own exertions. The learner should proceed patiently, and 
with caution, at first, and be content to increase his speed gradually with 



HOW TO STOP. VARIOUS EVOLUTION-. 57 

his knowledge ; the opposite extreme, however, must also be avoided, for no 
one ever becomes a good skater who is afraid of a fall. When the inside 
edge movement has once been learned, the skater will find that his progress 
is greatly hastened by a push given to the ice with the left skate, as he 
starts with the right foot, and vice versa; but, above all things, let him 
thoroughly understand ''inside edge," and be confident of his own powers, 
before he begins practising the feats we will now describe. But first the 
skater must be taught 

HOW TO STOP. 

Bring the second foot down upon the ice, and glide forward, with both 
feet pointed in front of you, and parallel to each other, like the irons of a 
sledge. Bend the body forward, and throw all the weight upon the heels 
of the skates. Those who wear the skates with rounded heels cannot, of 
course, stop in this way, as the rounded irons, instead of sticking into the 
ice, would trip their wearer up ; he puts the second foot to the ground, at 
right angles with the other, pointed entirely sideways, which immediately 
stops his career. 

HOW TO PERFORM THE VARIOUS EVOLUTIONS. 

Before the skater attempts to cut figures and other devices, he must be 
able to skate on the outside edge of the skate, to skate backward, and to 
turn round. The outside edge implies what it is by its name ; when acquired, 
it sends you exactly in opposite directions, on both sides, to what the inside 
edge does. In explanation : Suppose that you are skating on the right foot, 
it is easy to turn to the left, but not so to the right, to effect wnich you must 
use the outside edge, by striking out upon it either foot, inclining, at the 
same time, the skate, the leg, the body, and the head toward whichever side 
you are skating, holding the other foot raised up behind, and rounding the 
arms. The most difficult forward movement is the cross outside edge, which 
is done by passing one leg across the other, and striking out with the foot 
as it comes down on the ice. As the foot on which you first rested dis- 
engages itself (which it will do as you proceed) from the crossed-leg posi- 
tion, throw that leg over the other, and, by continuing this, you will soon 
learn to sweep round on either side with ease. This is called the Mercury 
figure. 

The salute in a right fine is not easy of execution. Having first struck 
out, you must place the feet in a horizontal line, elevating and rounding the 
arms. Continue the movement as long as you can, or think fit to do so. 
This attitude, though difficult, is frequently practised by good skaters. 

The salute in a curved line is much easier. Having started, you put 
your feet in the position you would adopt to describe the salute in a right 
line (see Fig. 2), only less horizontally. The head and body must be upright, 
the arms rounded, the hands placed on the haunches ; in this position you 
describe a circle. You then draw yourself up, the knees having become 
3* 



SKATING. 

slightly bent, and, raising the right or left foot, prepare for another evolu- 
tion; as either striking out straight forward, or toward one side. 

To describe circles and curves will be found the most graceful and useful 
of evolution ;. To describe a curve on the outside edge forward, fix on some 




Fig. 



Fig. 3. 



point as a centre, and take a run proportioned to the number of curves you 
propose describing. Strike out on the outward edge, turning in a curve 
round the centre fixed upon. Tour eyes must look toward the shoulder 
opposite that which directs the general movement of the side on which you 
turn. The hips must be kept in, and the leg on which you are propelled 
bent slightly at the knee-joint; the opposite leg must also be bent, and 
thrown backward, to modify, by its weight and position, the impulse for- 
ward, and to insure your equilibrium. 

To describe a curve, or circle, on the inside edge forward, you must 
select a small piece of cork, or any other light body, as a centre, take a suf- 
ficient run, and strike out on the inward edge. Your head and body must 
be in the position described for outward curves, only the leg on which you 
skate must not be bent. The opposite leg should be almost stiff, and the 
foot about eighteen inches distant from the one you rest upon. (See Fig. 4.) 
Curves on the inside edge are terminated by stopping in the usual manner ; 
but if you desire to pirouette, or turn round, you throw the foot on which 
you do not skate over that on which you do, and, from the impulse given 
to your body, in order to describe the curve, you spin round on the middle 
of the skate, as on a pivot. After having done this a few times, you bring 
down the foot you are not revolving on, and proceed to other evolutions. 

To skate backward, you must incline the head and body slightly for- 
ward, in order not to lose the centre of gravity. Strike out behind on 



VARIOUS EVOLUTIONS. 



59 




each foot alternately, and raise 
the heel of the skate slightly 
up from the ice ; by this ope- 
ration each foot will describe 
an arc or segment of a circle. 
Should you feel to be losing 
your equilibrium, bring both 
skates together upon the ice. 

This evolution is performed 
sometimes on one foot, some- 
times on the other, and occa- 
sionally on both together, by 
the help of a slight motion of 
the hips. 

Retrograde or backward 
curves differ from ordinary 
curves by their direction only ; 
and at first sight appear diffi- 
cult, because a person cannot 

move backward'with the same facility that he can go forward. When, how- 
ever, you are used to this manner of skating, it will appear natural and toler- 
ably easy of execution. The backward curve is of equal importance with 
the ordinary curve on the outside 
edge, and constitutes the base of 
all retrograde or backward figures. 
In this evolution the position of 
the arms and head is not the 
same as for the ordinary curve 
on the outside edge. "When exe- 
cuting the outward retrograde 
curve, your face must be turned 
toward the left shoulder. The 
backward curve may be extended 
to circles, spiral rings, as shown 
by Figs. 5 and 6, and be finally 
concluded by the pirouette. 

The oblique stop is the most pro- 
per to adopt when you arc skating 
backward. In order to perform it, 
when engaged in a retrograde 
movement, you bring down en the ice in an oblique and transverse position 
the skate on which you are not resting, stiffening at the same time the leg 
you thus bring down. The effect of this manoeuvre is prompt and certain, 
and the only variation it admits of is, that it can be performed on either 
foot. 




Fig. 5. 



60 



SKATING. 




Pig. 



To turn round, bring either 
heel behind the other, and 
you turn as a matter of course. 
By carefully attending to 
the above directions, with 
practice, you will be able to 
cut the numerical figures, or 
any device that you may wish. 
The figure 8 is the best 
practice, and is described by 
completing the circle on the 
outside edge forward. This is 
performed by crossing the legs, 
and striking from the outside 
instead of the inside edge. 
To cross the legs, the skater, 
as he draws to the close of the 
stroke on his right leg, must 
throw the left quite across it, which will cause him to press hard on the 
outside of the right skate, from which he must immediately strike, throwing 
back the left arm and looking simultaneously over the left shoulder, so as to 
bring him well up on the outside edge of the left skate. The 8 is formed by 
completing a perfect circle, in the manner described, on each leg, before 
changing the foot. The figure 3, which is performed on the inside edge 
backwards, may next be practised. 

2\"o pains should be spared upon this figure, as it is a most elegant one, 
and is, besides, the key to all figures. "When the 3 is once mastered, 
other figures become quite easy. The mode of doing it is this : Start on the 
right foot as if going to make an 8, but do it as gently as possible. But, 
instead of swinging the left foot round so as to make a circle, let it remain 
at lea$t afoot behind the right foot. The consequence 
of doing so is, that when three-fourths of the circle 
are completed, the off-foot gives a curious sway to 
the body, and the skater spins round on his right 
foot, changing at the same time from the outside to 
the inside edge, and cuts the second half of the 3 
backwards. TThen the skater can do this easily 
he should practise it with the left; and when he 
equal ease with either foot, he should cut two to- 
gether, as seen in the drawing. Let the reader here refer to the drawing, 
while we trace the skater through it. He begins with the left hand 3, 
starting with his left foot on the outside edge ; when he gets to the twist of 
the 3 he spins round, and finishes the figure (still with the left foot) on the 
inside edge backward. His right foot is now at liberty to pass to the top of 
the right hand 3, which he cuts in like manner. Especial care must be 




with the right foot, 
can cut the 3 with 



SLIDING. 61 

taken to keep the knees straight, and to preserve a graceful carriage of the 
body. If the skater should be so far off his balance as to find any difficulty 
in spinning round, he will gain his object by throwing his weight a very 
little toward the toe of the skate. The reason why the skater curves round 
in this twist is, that the steel of the skate has a curved form ; and when for 
a moment the body is quite upright, the whole skate spins round on its 
centre, as on a pivot. 

GENERAL DIRECTIONS TO BE FOLLOWED BY PER- 
SONS LEARNING TO SKATE. 

1. Let your dress fit closely, but at the same time be of sufficient ease to 
insure freedom of motion. Neither skirts to coats nor full trousers should 
be worn. 

2. Let flannel be worn next the skin by the delicate, and an extra under- 
garment by the robust. Let the chest be well defended against the cold. A 
piece of brown paper laid between the waistcoat and shirt is one of the 
best chest protectors. 

3. Be careful in venturing upon the ice, unless it be sufficiently strong to 
bear the weight of the number that flock to it ; and watch for the increase 
of numbers, that you may retire before danger ensues. 

4. Avoid rough and very smooth ice, and look carefully out for obstruc- 
tions thereon; such as small twigs of trees, stones, or "hobbles;" as well 
as for rotten ice, cracks where the ice has risen higher on one side than the 
other, or holes. Should you suddenly come upon rotten ice, do not stop, 
but pass over it as rapidly as possible. Should you fall down upon it, roll 
lengthwise toward the firmer part, without attempting to stand or walk upon it. 

5. Should the skater fall into a hole, he should extend his pole or stick 
across it, and hold on to it till assistance arrives ; should he have no stick, 
he may extend his arms horizontally across the edges of the ice, till a rope 
can be thrown to him. 

6. After an unlucky immersion in the water, the unfortunate skater should 
immediately take off his skates, and, if able, run home as quickly as he can. 

He should then pull off all his wet clothes, take a table spoonful of brandy 
in a glass of hot water, rub himself thoroughly with dry towels, and go to bed. 

SLIDING. 

Sliding- is performed by taking a short run (gradually increasing the 
speed as you approach the slide), and simultaneously jumping on the left 
foot, and striking out forward with the right. You maintain your balance 
by varying the position of the arms, which are raised upward and slightly 
curved, the nails of both hands pointing toward the head. 

In accomphshing a long slide, when the impetus you have first acquired 
fails to carry you the entire length, it may be revived by slightly stooping, 
and then quickly raising your body, at the same time lounging forward with 
the right arm as in fencing. 



02 SWIMMING. 

SWIMMING. 







&&** 



It is astonishing how many persons are ignorant of this useful and neces- 
sary accomplishment. An American, who has more of the travelling mania 
than the native of any other country, should, by all means, be master of it; 
as he runs a risk of sudden immersion in water during his wanderings, and, 
should he be no swimmer, stands a great chance of being drowned. 

A horse, or a dog — indeed, most animals — will swim when thrown into 
the water; and, among savages, children are taught to swim at a very early 
age. An Indian who could not swim would be a wonder to his tribe. 
Among civilized men, however, the proportion of those who swim to those 
who do not, appears to be less than one-half. And yet the art of swimming 
is easy to learn — a little confidence and care only being required. 

In the essential part of swimming, i. e., in the art of keeping the head 
above the water, there is literally no skill at all. Confidence in the sustain- 
ing power of the water is the only secret ; and if the novice w T ill only dare 
to trust in the water, and will remember three simple rules, he cannot pos. 
sibly sink below the surface. These are the golden rules of swimming: 

Rule 1. — Keep the Hands and Feet well below the Surface, and 
Immerse the whole Body up to the Chin. 

The reasons for this rule are simple, and are based upon common sense. 
Every one, with the least smattering of physical science, knows that the 
flotation of various bodies is exactly in proportion to the quantity of water 
displaced. No man can stand upright upon the water, because the amount 



SWIMMING. 63 

of water displaced by the soles of the feet would not counteract the weight 
of the body. And, it will be seen, by the simple carrying out of this prin- 
ciple, that exactly in proportion to the immersion of the body is it sustained 
by the water. 

All practical swimmers know that when a man swims with his whole 
head and part of his shoulders out of the water, he cannot endure for any 
length of time, because the force that ought to be used in propulsion is 
wasted upon sustaining the body. 

Every inch of the body that is raised above the surface becomes a dead 
weight, pressing the body under water and calling for great exertion on the 
part of the swimmer. Many persons, when they fall into the water, plunge 
about and try to lift themselves out of it, acting as if they were attempting 
to kneel upon its surface. This action is instinctive, and is one of those 
where instinct is inferior to reason. In point of fact, ninety-nine out of 
every hundred who perish in the water, drown themselves as effectually a^ 
if they had tied a heavy weight round their necks. 

The weight of the head, breast, and arms of a human being is, on the 
average, about forty pounds ; and when a drowning person lifts those por- 
tions of the body above the surface, he practically acts as if he fastened a 
forty-pound weight upon his head. 

Every one who has attained some knowledge of swimming, and tries to 
perform the feat of holding one leg out of the water, is made practically 
aware of this fact. 

Eule 2. — Hollow the Spixe and throw the back: of the Head upon 
the Shoulders. 

Like all the rules in swimming, this is founded upon common sense. 

Bulk for bulk, the body of an ordinary human being is about the same as 
that of the water. There are, however, two exceptional portions — namely, 
the head, which is somewhat heavier, and the chest, which is much lighter. 
Any one will, therefore, see that it is most essential to support the former 
upon the latter, as well as to make the water support both as much as pos- 
sible. 

By hollowing the spine and throwing the back of the head upon the 
shoulders, the heavy, solid mass of the brain is supported by the air-filled 
lungs, and the eyes and nostrils are kept above the surface. As to the 
mouth, that may be above or below the surface, for, if the lips be kept 
firmly closed, and respiration conducted through the nostrils, no water can 
enter. 

The chief object in hollowing the back is, that it aids the swimmer in 
keeping his nostrils out of the water. No viler habit can be found than 
that of rounding the back, and there is none which is so difficult to eradi- 
cate. 

Rule 3. — Move the Limbs Quietly. 

A good swimmer is at once distinguished by the ease and quietude of all 
his movements. The arms and legs are flung out to their fullest extent, 



64 



SWIMMING. 



sweep round in the water equably, and are drawn up for another stroke, 
without the least hurry. The bad swimmer, on the contrary, never waits 
long enough to make a full stroke, but gives short and hurried jerks with 
his arms and leg?, never extending them more than half their length. 

The slow stroke is the very essence of good swimming. Of course, we are 
not speaking of racing, when the strokes are necessarily quick and power- 
ful, but merely of the method of obtaining a good and enduring style. 
Try how far you can go at each stroke, and do not draw back the limbs 
until the force of the stroke is all but exhausted. At first you will appear 
to make but little progress ; but the endurance of the long, slow stroke is 
surprising, and its speed by no means contemptible. 

Dr. Franklin, himself an expert swimmer, recommends that at first a 
familiarity with the buoyant power of water should be gained ; and to ac- 
quire this, he directs the learner, after advancing into the water breast high, 
to turn round, so as to bring his face to the shore : he is then to let an egg 
fall in the water, which, being white will be seen at the bottom. His ob- 
ject must now be by diving down with his eyes open, to reach and bring up 
the egg. He will easily perceive that there is no danger in this experiment, 
as the water gets shallower of course towards the shore, and because when- 
ever he likes, by depressing his feet he can raise his head again above 
water. 

The thing that will most strike beginners will be the great difficulty they 
experience in forcing themselves through the water to reach the egg, in 
consequence of the great resistance the water itself offers to their progress : 
and this is indeed the practical lesson derivable from the experiment ; for 
the learner becomes aware of the very great sustaining or supporting power 
of water, and hence has confidence. This sustaining power of water is 
shown under many circumstances: thus, a stone which on land requires 
two men to remove it, might in water be easily carried by one. A man 
might walk without harm on broken glass in deep water, because his weight 
is supported by the water. This knowledge of fluid support constitutes the 
groundwork of all efforts in swimming, or in self-preservation from drowning. 

Dr. Arnot, in allusion to this subject, says that many persons are 
drowned who might be saved, for the following reasons : — «* 

1. From their believing that their constant exertions are necessary to pre- 
serve the body from sinking, and their hence assuming the position of a 
swimmer, with the face downward, in which the whole head must be kept 
out of the water, in order to enable them to breathe ; whereas, when lying 
on the back, only the face need be above the water. 

2. From the groundless fear that water entering by the ears may drown 
as if it entered by the mouth or nose, and their employing exertions to pre- 
vent this. 

3. The keeping of the hands above water, already alluded to. 

4. Neglecting to take the opportunity of the intervals of the waves pass- 
ing over the head, to renew the air in their chest by an inspiration. 



PLACE8 AND TIMES FOR BATHING AND SWIMMING. 65 

5. Their not knowing the importance of keeping the chest as full of air as 
possible, which has nearly the same effect as tying a bladder full of air 
around the neck would have. 

But although floating in water is sufficient to preserve from immediate 
danger, this will not alone enable us to swim. To swim, does not mean 
simply to float, but to progress ; and progression by this means depends, 
like the flight of birds, upon the law in mechanics of every action being fol- 
lowed by a corresponding reaction, but in an opposite direction ; and thus, 
as the reaction of the air compressed by the downward action of the bird's 
wing, causes it to mount aloft in proportion to the force it communicates by 
that motion ; so, the backward stroke communicated by the simultaneous 
movement of the hands and feet of the swimmer, causes his forward pro- 
gress in the water. "When once familiarized with the support derived from 
the water itself, he soon learns to make the stroke correctly, especially if 
aided and supported by some more experienced friend, — a far better assistant 
than corks and bladders. 

PLACES AND TIMES FOR BATHING AND SWIMMING. 

It is presumed that most young lads who go to bathe will take the oppor- 
tunity of learning to swim. In crowded cities there are but few places in wliich 
the youngster can learn the art: but in the country there are many rivers, 
ponds, canals, or lakes, where both bathing and swimming may be indulged 
in without annoyance. The best kind of place for bathing is on a shelving 
gravelly shore, on which the wa*er gradually deepens, and where no 
awkward sweep of current may take the bather off his legs. The spot 
should also be free from holes, weeds, and hard stones; and a muddy 
bottom is to be avoided by all means. Should the banks of such a spot be 
shaded by a few trees, and should there be close by an open space for a 
run on the grass after the bathe, so much the better ; and the young learner 
will then have the chief inducement to venture the sudden dip or headlong 
plunge. 

The best time of the day for bathing or swimming is either before break- 
fast, between the hours of six and eight in the summer-time, or between 
eleven and twelve in the forenoon. Delicate persons should not bathe early 
in the morning ; and it would be always well to munch a biscuit before 
early bathing at all times. No one should ever think of entering the water 
on a full stomach, or immediately after dinner, and never when over-heated 
and exhausted by fatigue. He should also avoid entering it when cold, or 
with a headache. Before bathing, it is best to take a moderate walk of 
about a mile, and while the system is in a glow, to undress quickly and 
plunge in. It is bad to walk until you get hot, then to sit down and cool, 
and afterward to enter the water ; many have lost their lives by this. It 
is also very wrong to enter the water during rain, as the clothes are often 
wetted or damp, which gives the bather cold. 



66 SWIMMING. 

ENTERING THE WATER. 

Having stripped the body, the bather should select the best place on tho 
bank for going down to the stream ; and then proceeding cautiously but 
quickly, wade up to his breasts, turn his head to the shore and dip. Ho 
then technically, as the boys say, gets his pinch over. Should he not be 
man enough to proceed in this way, he should, as soon as he gets his feet 
wet, splash some water over his head, and go into the water more gradually, 
and try the rapid rush and dip when he gets bolder. He must not attempt 
to swim or strike out till he can master the feat of going into the water up 
to his armpits, and till he feels himself confident and void of timidity. 

AIDS TO SWIMMING. 

Many aids have been used for the benefit of young swimmers : corks and 
bladders fastened under the arms are the common ones ; but they offer dan- 
gerous temptations for bathers to go out of their depth, and then should 
cramp, cold, or any other accident occur, the event may be fataL Besides, 
these aid3 often slip about from one place to the other. We remember, in 
our younger days, of the "corks" slipping to the hips, and seeing a young 
friend, now an old man, suspended in the water with his head downward ; 



while collapsing of bladders and of air-jackets is by no means uncommon. 
The plank may be serviceable to enable the beginner to throw out his legs 
and feet. A piece of wood, a yard in length, two feet in breadth, and about 
two inches in thickness, will be found best adapted for the purpose. When 
the pupil can support himself without the aid of corks, &e,, the plank being 
thrown into the water, he should grasp one end of it with both hands, and 
striking out his legs, push it on before him ; but if he let go the plank, he 
will probably be left to sink. 

The best aid to a young swimmer is a judicious friend, himself a good 
swimmer, who will hold up his head, when he strikes off, by the "tip of the 
finger to the tip of the chin," and who at the same time will show him how 



STRIKING OFF AND SWIMMING. 



67 



to strike off, and how to manage his hands and feet. It is not a bad plan to 
put out a spar from a boat, to which a rope is attached, which the young 
learner may make use of by affixing it to a belt round his body under his 
arms, which will afford him support while he learns to strike his legs in the 
water. The rope may also bo held in the hand of a friend, by the side of 
the boat, and the learner may strike off hands and feet as the boat proceeds. 
The plank is a dangerous aid, from its tendency to slip about, and to take 




the swimmer out of his depth, and although it has many advantages, is 
very unsafe. The safest plan of all is, as we have before stated, for the 
learner to advance gradually up to his arm-pits in the water, and then turn- 
ing about, to strike slowly out toward the shore, taking care to keep his legs 
well up from the bottom. rigid perseverance in this course will in a very 
short time enable the youngster to feel himself afloat, and moving at " all 
fours," — a delight equal to that experienced by the child who first feels that 
he can walk from chair to chair. 

STUIHIXG OFF AND SWIMMING. 





In striking off, the learner, having turned himself to the shore, as before 
recommended, should fall toward the water gently, keeping his head and 
neck perfectly upright, his brea-st advancing forward, his chest inflated; 



68 



SWIMMING. 



then, withdrawing the legs from the bottom, and stretching them out, strike 
the arms forward in unison with the legs. The back can scarcely be too 
much hollowed, or the head too much thrown back, as those who do other- 
wise will swim with their feet too near the surface, instead of allowing them 
to be about a foot and a half deep in the water. The hands should be placed 
just in front of the breast, the ringers pointing forward and kept close to- 
gether, with the thumbs to the edge of the fore-fingers : the hands must be 
made rather concave on the inside, though not so much as to diminish the 
size. In the stroke of the hands, they should be carried forward to the 
utmost extent, taking care that they do not touch the surface of the water ; 
they should next be swept to the side, at a distance from, but as low as, the 
hips ; and should then be drawn up again, by bringing the arms toward the 
side, bending the elbows upward and the wrists downward, so as to let the 

hands hang down while the 
arms are raising them to the 
first attitude. 

PLUNGING AND DIVING. 



There are two kinds of plung- 
ing; that belonging to shallow, 
and that belonging to deep 
water. In shallow- water plung- 
ing, the learner should fling 
himself as far forward as pos- 
sible into the stream at a very 
oblique angle ; and when he 
touches the water, he should 
raise his head, keep his back 
hollow, and stretch his hands 
forward. In the deep-water 

plunge, his body is to descend at a greater angle ; his arms are to be 

stretched out, his hands closed and pointed, and his body bent, so that his 

nose almost touches his toes. 

Diving is one of the greatest amusements connected with swimming. 

There are many kinds ; the two most common and easiest and necessary 

modes of going below the surface, are : 

1. The feet-foremost jump. 

2. The head-foremost jump. 

In the first, the legs, arms and head are to be kept perfectly rigid and 
stiff. The pupil must not allow fear, or the strange sensation felt in the 
bowels in leaping from considerable heights, to induce him to spread the 
arms or legs, or to bend his body. 

In the second mode, or head-foremost plunge — which is the safest mode 
for persons who are heavily built about the chest and shoulders, if they 




SWIMMING UNDER WATER. SWIMMING ON THE SIDE. 69 

have to enter the water from heights, — the head is drawn down upon the 
chest, the arms stretched forward and hands closed to a point ; and as soon 
as the swimmer feels that he has left the bank, his knees, which till then 
were bent, are to be stiffened. The diver must avoid striking on the belly 
— the general consequence of fear ; and turning over so as to come down on 
his back or side — the consequence of pushing with the feet. When he has 
gone as deep as he wishes, the arms are to be raised and pressed downward. 

HOW TO MANAGE THE LEGS. 

The legs, which should be moved alternately with the hands, must be 
drawn up with the knees inward, and the soles of the feet inclined out- 
ward ; and they should then be thrown backward, as widely apart from 
each other as possible. These motions of the hands and legs may be prac- 
tised out of the water ; and whilst exercising the legs, which can only be 
done one at a time, the learner may rest one hand on the back of a chair to 
steady himself, while he moves the opposite leg. When in the water, the 
learner must take care to draw in his breath at the instant that his hands, 
descending to his hips, cause his head to rise above the surface of the 
water ; and he should exhale his breath at the moment his body is pro- 
pelled forward through the action of the legs. If he does not attend pre- 
cisely to these rules, he must invariably have a downward motion, and as 
the boys say, swim furthest where it is deepest 

SWIMMING UNDER WATER. 
When under the water, the swimmer may either move in the usual way, 
or keep his hands stretched before him, which will enable him to cut the 
water more easily, and greatly relieve his chest. If he observes that 
he approaches too near the surface of the water, he must press the 
palms of his hands upward. If he wishes to dive to the bottom, he 
must turn the palms of his hands upward, striking with them repeatedly 
and rapidly whilst the feet are reposing ; and when he has obtained a per- 
pendicular position, he should stretch out his hands like feelers, and make 
the usual movement with his feet, then he will descend with great rapidity 
to the bottom. It is well to accustom the eyes to open themselves under 
the water, at least in those beds of water that admit the light, as it will 
enable the swimmer to ascertain the depth of water he is in. 

SWIMMING ON THE SIDE. 
In this, the body is turned either on the left or right side, while the feet 
perform their usual motions. The arm from under the shoulder stretches 
itself out quickly, at the same time that the feet are striking. The other 
arm strikes at the same time with the impelling of the feet. The hand of 
the latter arm begins its stroke on a level with the head. While the hand 
is again brought forward in a flat position, and the feet are contracted, the 
stretched-out hand is, while working, drawn back toward the breast, but 
not so much impelling as sustaining. As swimming on the side presents to 



TO 



SWIMMING. 



the water a smaller surface than on the waist, when rapidity is required, tho 
former is often preferable to the latter. 



=™. 




SWIMMING ON THE BACK WITHOUT EMPLOYING THE FEET. 

This is twofold: 1. In the direction of the feet. The body is placed in a 
horizontal position, the feet are stretched out stiffly, and the heels and toes 
are kept in contact ; then the body is to be somewhat curved at the seat, 
the hands are to be stretched flatly forward over the body, and, slowly stri- 
king in small circles, the loins are somewhat drawn up at each stroke. 2. In 
the direction of the head. The body is placed horizontally, but somewhat 
curved in the seat, the head in its natural position, the arms are kept close 
to the body, with the elbows inclined inward, and the hands describe small 
circles from the back to the front, at about a foot and a half from the hips. 
These modes serve to exercise and strengthen the arms in an extraordinary 
degree without in the least fatiguing the breast. 

FLOATING. 
The body is laid horizontally on the back, the head is bent backward as 
much as possible, the arms are stretched out over the head in the direction 

^ —?J$\ , J/ 




of the body, the feet are left to their natural position • if they sink, the 
loins must be kept as low as possible. In this position, the person, which is 



TREADING WATER. THE FLING. 



?1 



specifically lighter than water, remains, and may float at pleasure. The 
lungs should bo kept inflated, that the breast may be distended, and the cir- 
cumference of the body augmented. In order not to sink while in the act of 
taking breath, which the greater specific weight of the body would effect, 
the breath must be quickly expelled, and as quickly drawn in again, and 
then retained as long as possible ; for, as the back is in a flat position, the 
sinking, on account of the resistance of the water, does not take place so 
rapidly but the quick respiration will restore the equilibrium before the 
water reaches the nose. 

TREADING WATER. 

This is a perpendicular position of the swimmer, and is of great use to 
enable him to save a person from drowning. It is in general thought to be 
extremely difficult, but it is very easy. There are two ways of performing 
the action; in the first the hands are compressed against the hips, and the 




feet describe their usual circle; the other mode consists in not contracting 
both legs at the same time, but one after the other, so that while the one re- 
mains contracted the other describes a circle. In this mode, however, the 
legs must not be stretched out, but the thighs are placed in a distended po- 
sition, and curved as if in a half-sitting posture, 

THE FLING. 
The swimmer lays himself flat upon his waist, draws his feet as close as 
possible under the body, stretches his hands forward, and, with both feet 
and hands beating the water violently at the same time, raises himself out 
of the water. In this manner one may succeed in throwing one's self out of 
the water as high as the hips. This exercise is very useful, for saving one's 
self by catching a rope or any other object that hangs from above the sur- 
face of the water, or from any perpendicular height. 



72 



SWIMMING. 



SWIMMING ON THE BACK. 
In this the swimmer turns upon his back in the water by the combined 
motion of the arm and log, and extending his body, his head being in a line 
with it so that the back and upper part of the head may be immersed, while 
the face and breast are out of the water. The hands should be placed on 
the thighs straight down, and the legs moved as in forward swimming, tak- 





ing care that the knees do not rise above the surface in striking them out. 
Sometimes the hands are used after the motion of a wing or fan, by which 
a siigrht progression is also made at the same time that the surface of the 
body 13 well lifted out of the water, 

TIIEUSTING. 
-In the thrust the swimmer lies horizontally upon his waist, and makes 
the common motions in swimming. lie then simply stretches one arm for* 




ward, as in swimming on the side, but remains lying upon the waist, and, 
in a widely-described circle, he carries the other hand, which is working 



THE DOUBLE THRUST. TO SWIM WITH ONE HAND. 73 

under the breast, toward the hip. As soon as the arm has completed this 
motion, it is lifted from the water in a stretched position, and thrown for- 
ward in the greatest horizontal level, and is then sunk, with the hand flat, 
into the water ; while the swimmer thus stretches forth the arm, he, with 
the other hand stretched as wide as possible, describes a small circle, in 
order to sustain the body ; after this he brings his hand in a largely de- 
scribed circle rapidly to the hip, lifts the arm out of the water, and thrusts 
it forward. During the describing of the larger circle the feet make their 
movements. To make the thrust beautifully, a considerable degree of prac- 
tice is required. This mode of swimming is useful where a great degree of 
rapidity is required for a short distance. 

THE DOUBLE THRUST. 

In the performance of this the arm is thrust forward, backward, and 
again forward, without dipping into the water; in the mean time, the 
stretched forth arm describes two circles before it begins the larger one. 

TO SWIM LIKE A DOG. 

In this motion each hand and foot is used alternately, as a dog uses them 
when swimming, as the term implies. The hands are alternately drawn 
toward the chin in a compressed form, and then expanded and .slightly hol- 
lowed, with fingers close, and, as they strike the water, the feet are likewise 
drawn toward the belly, and struck backward with a kind of kick. This 
mode of swimming is of use to relieve the swimmer, from time to time, 
when going a distance. 

THE MILL. 

The swimmer lays himself on his back, and contracts himself so that the 
knees are brought almost to the chin, and while one of the hands keeps the 
equilibrium by describing circles, the other continues working. Thus the 
body is kept turning round more or less rapidly. 

THE WHEEL BACKWARD AND FORWARD. 

In the forward wheel the hands are put as far backward as possible, and 
so pressed against the water that the head is impelled under the surface, 
and the feet, by a pressure of the hands in a contrary direction, are rapidly 
flung above the head, which in this manner is rapidly brought again to the 
surface. 

In the backward wheel the swimmer lies upon his back, he contracts him- 
self, the hands, stretched forward as far as possible, describe rapidly small 
circles, the feet rise, and as the point of equihbrium has been brought as 
near as possible to the feet, the head sinks and the feet are thrown over. 

TO SWIM WITH ONE HAND. 

The learner, to do this, swims on one side, keeps his feet somewhat 
deeply sunk, while the arm, which in the mean time ought to work, is kept 
4 



7-4 SWIMMING. 

quiet — and might oven be taken out of the water. It is a good practice of 
strength to carry, lirst under and then over the water, a weight of four or 
eight pounds. 

HAND OYER HAND SWIMMING. 

In this process the right hand is lifted out of the water from behind, 
swung forward through, the air with a kind of circular sweep, to the extent 
of its reach forward, then dropped into the water edgeways, and imme- 
diately turned — with the palm a little hollowed — downward, the body being 
at the same time thrown a little on one side, and the right leg struck out 
backward to its full extent. The hand descends toward the thigh, and then 
passes upward through the water in a kind of curve toward the surface. 
The left hand and leg perform a similar movement alternately with the right, 
and the measure of progression attained by these combined similar move- 
ments is very considerable. 

BALANCING. 

When the swimmer has obtained ease and confidence in the water, he will 
find many things easy which before he deemed impossible. Balancing is 
one of these. To perform it, he has only, when out of his depth, to fail 
gently back, with his chin elevated to a line passing exactly through the 
centre of his body, from the chin to the toes, then, folding his arms and 
remaining perfectly motionless, he may suspend himself perpendicularly: 
but if he should extend his arms backward, and pass them gradually beyond 
his head, his toes, tips of his knees, abdomen, and part of his chest, with 
the whole of his face, will appear, and he will be balanced and float hori- 
zontally without the slightest motion, 

THE CRAMP. 

The cramp generally proceeds from acidity of the bowels, arising from a 
bad state of the stomach, or from the effects of the cold water on the mus- 
cular system. Some persons are very subject to it on slight occasions, and 
such persons will do well never to go out of their depth. But should a tol- 
erable swimmer be seized with the cramp, he should not be frightened, but 
the moment the cramp is felt in the foot or leg, strike out that foot or teg, 
with the heel elongated, and the toes drawn upward toward the shin-bone, 
never minding any little pain it may occasion, as he need not fear breaking 
a bone, muscle or tendon. Should this not succeed, he should throw him- 
self on his back, and float quietly, and paddle himself gently to the shore. 
He may also swim with his hands, like a dog, and practise any of the motions 
of the upper part of the body for keeping his head above water till assist- 
ance arrives. 

SAYING FROM DANGER. 

Above all things, the good swimmer should be anxious to save life, and 
to rescue those who are in danger, without himself becoming the victim, as it 



SPORTS AND FEATS IN SWIMMING. 75 

often happens. The following rules are highly important to be observed : 
The swimmer must avoid approaching the drowning person in front, in 
order that he may not be grasped by him ; for whatever a drowning person 
seizes, he holds with convulsive force, and it is no easy matter to get dis- 
entangled from his grasp; therefore, he should seize him from behind, and 
let go of him immediately if the other turns toward him. His best way is 
to impel him before him to the shore, or to draw him behind ; if the space 
to be passed be too great, he should seize him by the foot and drag him, 
turning him on his back. If the drowning person should seize him, there 
is no alternative for the swimmer than to drop him at once to the bottom 
of the water, and there to wrestle with liis antagonist; the drowning man, 
by a kind of instinct to regain the surface, when drawn down to the bot- 
tom, usually quits his prey, particularly if the diver attacks him there with 
all his power. 

For two swimmers the labor is easier, because they can mutually relieve 
each other. If the drowning person has still some presence of mind 
remaining, they will then seize him, one under one arm, and the other under 
the other, and without any great effort in treading water, bring him along, 
with his head above water, while they enjoin him to keep himself stretched 
out and as much as possible without motion. 

SPORTS AND FEATS IN SWIMMING. 

1. The Float — In this sport one swimmer lays himself horizontally on 
the back, with the feet stretched out, the hands pressed close to the body, 
and the head raised forward. The other swimmer takes hold of him by the 
extremity of the feet, and, swimming with one hand, impels him forward. 
The first remains motionless. 

2. The Plank. — One swimmer lays himself horizontally, as before, another 
lays hold of him with both his hands, immediately above the ankle, and 
pulls him obliquely into the water, while he extends himself and impels him- 
self forward ; thus both the swimmers drop rapidly the one over the other. 

3. The Pickaback Spring. — One swimmer treads the water, the other 
swims near him behind, places Ms hands upon the shoulders of the first, 
and presses him down. He then leaves his hold* and puts his feet upon 
his shoulders, and, flinging himself out of the water, pushes the first toward 
the bottom. Now he treads water, and the first performs the part of the 
second, and so on. 

4. The Shove. — Two swimmers place themselves horizontally on their 
backs, the legs are strongly extended, and the soles of the feet bear against 
each other ; each impels forward with all his power , and he who succeeds 
in pushing back the other is the conqueror. 

5. TJie Wrestle, — Two swimmers place themselves opposite to each other, 
tread water, and hold their right hands in the air ; the question is, who 
shall first force his opponent under the water by pressure. Only the head 
of the adversary is to be touched, and that only by pressure. 



, SWIMMING. 



TIIE PRUSSIAN SYSTEM OF PFUEL. 

The best of all methods for teaching swimming is that originally intro- 
duced by General Pfuel into the Prussian swimming-schools. By this 
method a person may be made a very good swimmer in a very short time. 

The apparatus for teaching consists of a hempen girdle five inches in 
width, of a rope from five to six fathoms in length, of a pole eight feet long, 
and a horizontal rail fixed about three and a half feet above the platform, on 
which the teacher stands, to rest the pole on. 

The depth of the water in the place chosen for swimming should, if pos- 
sible, be not less than eight feet, and the clearest and calmest water selected. 

The swimming-girdle, about five inches wide, is now placed round the 
pupil's breast, so that its upper edge rests on the chest, without getting 
tight. The teacher takes the rope, which is fastened to the ring of the gir- 
dle, in his hand, and directs the pupil to leap into the water, keeping the 
legs straight and close together, and the arms close to the body, and, what 
is very important, to breathe out through the nose as soon as his head rises 
above the water, instead of breathing in first, as every man naturally does 
after a suspension of breath. The object of this is to prevent the water 
from getting into the throat, which produces an unpleasant feeling of chok- 
ing and headache. This expiration soon becomes natural to the swimmer. 

The pupil is next invited to leap. He is drawn up immediately by the 
rope, pulled to the ladder, and aUowed to gain confidence gradually. The 
rope is now fastened by a noose to the end cf the pole, the other end of it 
being kept in the hand of the teacher ; the pole is rested on the horizontal 
rail, and the pupil stretches himself horizontally on the water, where he 
remains, supported by the pole. Next the arms are extended stiffly for- 
ward, the hands clasped, the chin touches the water; the legs are also 
stiffly stretched out, the heels being together, the feet turned out, and the toes 
drawn up. This horizontal position is important, and must be executed cor- 
rectly. ISO limb is permitted to be relaxed. 

The movement of the limbs is now taught ; that of the legs is taught 
first. The teacher first says, loudly and slowly, " One;" when the legs are 
slowly drawn Under the body ; at the same time the knees are separated to 
the greatest possible distance, the spine is bent downward, and the toes kept 
outward. The teacher then says briskly, "Two;" upon which the legs are 
stiffly stretched out, with a moderate degree of quickness, while the heels 
are separated, and the legs describe the widest possible angle, the toes 
being contraeted and kept outward. The teacher then says quickly, 
"Three;" upon which the legs, with the knees held stiffly, are quickly 
brought together, and thus the original position is again obtained. 

The point at which the motions "two" and "three" join are the most im- 
portant, because it is the object to receive as large and compact a wedge of 
water between the legs as possible ; so that when the legs are brought to- 
gether their action upon this wedge may urge the body forward, In ordi- 



THE PRUSSIAN SYSTEM OF PFUEL. / I 

nary cases of swimming, the hands arc not used to propel, but merely to 
assist in keeping on the surface. By degrees, therefore, "two" and "three" 
are counted in quick succession, and the pupil is taught to extend the legs 
as widely as possible. After some time, what was done under the heads 
"two" and "three" is done when "two" is called out. When the teacher 
sees that the pupil is able to propel himself with ease, which he frequently 
acquires the power of doing in the first lesson, and that he performs the 
motions already mentioned with regularity, he teaches the motions of the 
hands, which, must not be allowed to sink, as they are much disposed to do 
while the motion of the legs is practised. 

The motion of the hands consists of two parts. When the teacher says 
"One," the hands, which were held with the palms together, are opened, 
laid horizontally an inch or two under water, and the arms are extended 
till they form an angle of 90° ; then the elbow is bent, and the hands are 
brought up to the chin, having described an arc downward and upward ; the 
lower part of the thumb touches the chin, the palms being together. When 
the teacher says "Two," the arms are quickly stretched forward, and thus 
the original horizontal position is regained. The legs remain stiffly extended 
during the motion of the hands. If the motion of the hands is correctly done, 
the legs and arms are moved together; so that while the teacher says "One," 
the pupil performs the first motion of the hands and legs ; when he says 
" Two," the second and third motions of the feet, and the second of the hands. 

As soon as the teacher perceives that the pupil begins to support himself, 
he slackens the rope a little, and instantly straightens it if the pupil is about 
to sink. When the pupil can swim about ten strokes in succession, he is 
released from the pole, but not from the rope. When he can swim about 
50 strokes, he is released from the rope too ; but the teacher remains near 
him with a long pole until he can swim 150 strokes in succession, so that 
should he sink, the pole is immediately held out to him. After this he may 
swim in the area of the school, under the eye of the teacher, until ho 
proves that he can swim half-an-hour in succession, so that should he sink, 
the pole may be held out to him; he is then considered fit to be left to him- 
self. 




7^ BOATING. 

BOATING. 



It would be an interesting study to trace the origin of vessels intended 
for conveying people on the water, commencing with Noah's Ark, the 
first on record, and coming down through the galleys of the Romans, 
and the vessels of the Yikings, to the improved ships of the present time. 
But this would take a great deal of time, and our young readers who are 
looking after specific information, would doubtless prefer us to get at once 
to the subject in hand. 

OF BOATS. 

A Boat is properly a vessel propelled by oars. In a more extensive sense 
the word is applied to other small vessels, which differ in construction and 
name, according to the services in which they are employed. Thus they 
are light or strong, sharp or flat-bottomed, open or decked, according as they 
are intended for swiftness or burden, deep or shallow water, &c. 

The Barge is a long, light, narrow boat, employed in harbors, and unfit for 
sea. The Long Boat is the largest boat belonging to a ship, generally fur- 
nished with two sails, and is employed for cruising short distances, bringing 
the cargo and bales on board, &c. 

The Launch is more flat-bottomed than the long boat, which it has gene- 
rally superseded. The Pinnace resembles the barge, but is smaller. The 
Cutters of a ship are broader and deeper than the barge or pinnace, and are 
employed in carrying light articles, single passengers, &c, on board. 

Yawls are used for similar purposes to the barge and pinnace. A Gig is 
a long, narrow boat, used for expedition, and rowed with six or eight oars. 
The Jolly Boat is smaller than a yawl, and is used for going on shore. A 
merchant ship seldom has more than two boats — a long boat and a yawL 



THE COMPONENT PARTS OF BOAT?-, iV 

A Wlierry is a light, sharp boat, used in a river or harbor for transporting 
passengers. A Punt is a ilat-bottomed boat, chiefly used for fishing on a 
fresh-water river. A Skiff is a small sharp-nosed boat, used in rivers. A 
Dingy is a very small stiff boat used by yachts. A Yacht is a pleasure sail- 
ing-boat. A Lugger is a boat furnished with sails of a peculiar cut. A 
Funny, called m the West a skiffs is a little boat with her bow and stern 
nearly alike. "When the bow and stern are both square, this is called a 
Scow. A Bateau and Punt are the same. A Canoe is a long, narrow boat 
hollowed out of the trunk of a tree. It is sometimes made by stretching 
birch bark on light ribs of tough and flexible wood. In the West the Man- 
dan tribes of Indians used one covered with skins and nearly round. This 
was also used by the ancient Britons, and called a Coracle. An improved 
barge is used in Xew York harbor, where it is known as the Whitehall 
Boat. For races and regattas, a skeleton boat is built, long and narrow, 
with outriggers upon which the rowlocks are set. 

THE COMPONENT PARTS OF BOATS. 

Rowing boats consist af the bows (1) ; the stem, or entrance (2) ; the stern 

(8), where are the rudder and the lines for steering; the rowlocks (:>), for 

giving purchase to the oars; and the thwarts, or seats (4). At the bottom 

are the foot-boards (5), which are easily removed, in order to bail out any 



water which may leak into the boat. Besides these parts there is a board 
placed across the boat for the feet of the rower, called a stretcher. The 
whole boat is composed of one or more planks, called streaks, nailed upon a 
light oak framework, called the timbers, or ribs ; and the upper streak, upon 
which the rowlocks are placed, is called the wale-streak. Boats with two 
rowlocks opposite each other are called sculling boats, and are propelled by 
a pair of hght oars called sculls, the art being called k 'scuiiingv' When a 
boat is fitted with a pair of rowlocks not opposite each other, it is called 
a pair-oared boat. If with two in the middle opposite each other, and two 
others, one before and the other behind, but not opposite each other, it is 
called a randan. When a boat has four rowlocks, none of which are oppo- 
site one another, it is called a four-oared boat, and so on up to ten oars, 
which is the utmost limit in common use for any kind of boat but the plea- 
sure barge, which sometimes has twenty-four oars. The rowlock nearest 
the bow is called the bow rowlock, or No. 1 ; the next No. 2, and so on ; 
and the oars used in them receive the same number, the one nearest the 



80 BOATING. 

stern being called the "stroke oar." The rowlocks in river and sea 
boats are somewhat different in shape though identical in principle, both 
consisting of a square space of about the breadth of a man's hand, and both 
lying on the wale-streak; but in river boats being generally bounded before 
and behind by a flat piece of oak or ash called, respectively, the thowl-phi 
and stopper ; whilst in sea boats they are merely common round wooden 
pins dropped into holes made in the wale-streak, but still receiving the same 
names. The thowl-pin is for the purpose of pulling the oar against, whilst 
the stopper prevents the oar from slipping forward when the rower is 
pushing it in that direction after the stroke. 

THE OARS AND SCULLS. 

A scull is a small oar used with one hand, and requiring a pair, as in the 
case of oars, one being placed in the rowlock on each side the boat, and the 
pair being used by one person with his right and left hands. Oars are used 
by both hands, and a pair-oared boat consequently requires two oarsmen ; 
a four-oared boat four, and so on. Both sculls and oars consist of the same 

parts, except that the handle of the oar is made 

long enough for both hands, as at a. In every 



" jT case there is a rounded handle, a &, a loom, 

square in form, and extending from the handle 
to the button, or about one-third of the length of the oar ; and beyond the 
button is the blade, which is first nearly round, and then gradually widens, 
until it assumes the form best adapted for laying hold of the water, which 
is now found to be broad rather than long, as was formerly thought to be 
desirable. The button is a piece of leather nailed on to prevent the oar 
from slipping through the rowlock, but only used in river rowing, as it is 
not adapted for the rough work which is often met with in sea rowing. 

BOATING TERMS. 

Weather oar. 

Bow oar, the starhoard upright oar towards the bow of the boat. 

Stroke oar, the oar rowed by the strokesman. 

Stroe^smajST, the sternmost man of the rowers. 

Strokeside, the port or right side 

Bowman, the man nearest the bow of the boat. 

Cockswain, the man who steers the boat. 

Thowl-pins, the pins which sometimes are used for the rowlocks. 

Headfast, sometimes called the painter. A rope fixed forward to fasten 
the boat after landing. 

To unship the sculls, simply means to take them out of the rowlocks. 

Bowed off ; when this direction is given by the cockswain, all the oars 
are laid in with their blades forward. 

In bow ; at this phrase, the bowman gets the boat-hook ready to clear 
awav for the shore. 



ROWING. MANAGEMENT OF THE OAR. 81 



SEA ROWING. 

This is necessarily less elegant than river rowing, because of the rough 
nature of the element on which the exercise is pursued. The oar must be 
held firmly in the hands, the inside hand being placed at &, and the out- 
side at a, and both hands grasping the oar between the thumbs and fin- 
gers. The whole art consists in the crew moving backward and forward 
together, called "swinging," and laving hold of the water as well as they 
can, taking care to avoid pulling in the air with great force when there is a 
trough or interval between two waves, and on the other hand equally avoid- 
ing a heavy wave, which has a tendency to dash the oar out of the hand. 
All this requires practice in the rowers, and also in the steersman, called the 
cockswain, who should watch for the high waves, and warn his men when a 
heavy one is coming. lie should also take care to cross the roll of the sea as 
much as possible, so as to avoid being struck on the side of the boat called " the 
counter," which would either swamp her or else knock the oars out of the 
rowlocks. In this kind of rowing, the ' ' feathering" of the oar, to be presently 
described, is not attempted, on account of the roughness of the water, but 
it merely is pulled steadily, but strongly, backward, and is then pushed for- 
ward in the rowlocks. 

RIVER ROWING. 

The art of river rowing is capable of a high degree of elegance, and few 
sights are more pleasing to a lover of graceful forms than that of a crew of 
fine lads, or young men, rowing well together and in good style. To do 
this requires great practice, and attention to a few essential points, which 
we will here endeavor to describe. 

MANAGEMENT OF THE OAR. 

The rower should, as far as possible, take some good oarsman for his 
model, and endeavor to imitate him in every respect, which is the only mode 
of acquiring a good style. Description is useful in putting the learner in 
the way of acquiring what is to be taught, but it is not all-sufficient for the 
purpose. In the first place, the learner should place himself square on the 
seat, with his feet straight before him, and the toes slightly turned out. The 
knees may either be kept together, or separated considerably, the latter being 
in our opinion the better mode, as it allows the body to come more forward 
over the knees. The feet are to be placed firmly against the stretcher, 
which is to be let out or shortened, to suit the length of the individual : 
and one foot may be placed in the strap which is generally attached to the 
stretcher in modern boats. The oar is then taken in hand, raising it by the 
handle, and then either at once placing it in the rowlock, or else first dropping 
it flat on the water, and then raising the handle it may gently be lowered to 
its place. The outside hand is placed upon the handle at a, with the thumb as 
4* 



82 



UOATING. 



*"ett as (he fingers above it, while tho other hand hraily grasps it lower down 
at b, keeping the nut toward the person. The arms are now quiekly thrust 
forward until they are quite straight at the elbows, after which the back fol- 
lows them by bending forward at the hips, carefully avoiding any roundness 
of the shoulders "When the hands have reached their full stretch they are 




COMMENCEMENT OF THE PULL, 



raised, and the blade quietly and neatly dropped into the water ; immediately 
after which, and with the water just covering the blade, the body is brought 
back with a graceful yet powerful action, till it reaches a part a little behind 
the perpendicular of the back of the seat, when the hands are brought back to 




MIDDLE OF THE PTJLL. 



the ribs, the elbows gliding close by the hips ; and at the last moment, as the 
hand touches the rib, the wrist of the inside hand is depressed, the knuckles 
being at the -same time brought against the chest, and the oar is made to 




END OF THE PULL. 



MANAGEMENT OF THE BOAT. 83 

rotate in the rowlock, which is called " feathering" it, and by which it is 
brought cleanly out of the water. The next action is to push the oar rap- 
idly forward again, first however restoring it to its original position in the 
rowlock, which is effected by raising the wrist, and then darting the arms 
forward till the elbows are quite straight, which brings the rower to where 
we started from in the description. In ''backing water," the reverse of 




BETURN OF THE SCULLS. 

these actions takes place. The oar is first reversed in the rowlock, and then 
it is pushed through the water with as much power as is needed, and pulled 
through the air. "When the oars on one side arc pulled, and those on the 
other are backed, the boat is made to turn on its own water. " Holding 
water" is effected by the oars being held in the position of backing without 
moving them. 

THE ESSENTIAL POINTS IN ROWING. 

1st, To straighten the arms before bending the body forward ; 2d, to 
drop the oar cleanly into the water; 3d. to draw it straight through at the 
same depth ; 4th, to feather neatly, and without bringing the oar out before 
doing so ; 5th, to use the back and shoulders freely, keeping the arms as 
straight as possible ; and 6th, to keep the eyes fixed upon the rower before 
them, avoiding looking out of the boat, by which means the body is almost 
sure to swing backward and forward in a straight line. 

MANAGEMENT OF THE BOAT. 

Every boat without a rudder is manoeuvred in the water, either by pulling 
both sides alike, in which case it progresses in a straight line, or by revers- 
ing the action of the oars, equally on both sides, pushing them through the 
water instead of pulling them, and called backing water, when the boat 
recedes ; or by pulling one side only, en which the boat describes a seg- 
ment of a circle, which is made smaller by pulling one oar, and backing the 
other. By means of a rudder the boat is made to take a certain course, 
independent of the rowers, called "steering," the chief art in which con- 
sists m keeping the rudder as still as possible, by holding the lines " taut," 
and avoiding pulling them from one side to the other more than is absolutely 
necessary. Some steersmen think it necessary to swing backward and for- 



84 BOATING. 

ward with a great effort, but this is quite useless, and the more still they 
keep the better. Every cockswain should know the course of the stream or 
tide ; and when meeting other boats, he should, if he is going down stream, 
give them the side nearest the shore, so as to allow them the advantage of 
the slack water, which is quite prejudicial to him. When a crew are steered 
by a competent cockswain, they ought to be perfectly obedient to his com- 
mands, rowing exactly as he tells them. His orders are communicated by 
the following words, viz. : when desiring his crew to row he says, " Pull all ;" 
or if wishing any one oar to be pulled, he says, " Pull bow," or " Pull No. 
3," or 4, etc., as the case may be. If they are to stop rowing, he says "Easy 
all," or for any one oar, " Easy bow," or No. 2. The same kind of order is 
conveyed when "backing" or " holding water" is desired; the only varia- 
tion, as before, being between confining his order to any one or more oars, 
or extending it to all. In this way all the evolutions practicable on the 
water are managed, and the cockswain has complete control over the boat, 
being able to cause her to be rowed slowly or quickly, or to be stopped, 
backed, or turned on her own centre. 

LANDING. 

If the tide -be in your favor, bring the boat in a rather slanting direction 
toward the place of landing, so that as you reach the place the tide may 
take the stern down, as it is always best to land stern to tide. When you 
get to the landing-place, unship the sculls as before directed : but instead of 
letting them lie alongside, lay them in the boat, with the looms aft and tho 
blades forward ; then take hold of the headfast, jump ashore, and fasten the 
boat safely. This applies to river rowing ; but in landing on the sea- shore 
when there is a swell, a little more care must be used ; your boat, however, 
will be larger and stronger manned. In this case you must watch for a 
smooth; as soon as you have it, "give way" with all your power to the 
shore. The bowman must be ready to jump ashore with the painter in his 
hand, and pull the boat up out of the reach of the surf; all hands must jump 
out, after having first laid in their oars as before directed, and help him if 
he is not strong enough. 

Launching a boat from the beach is sometimes a more difficult affair. 
When there is a considerable swell, and the boat is large (it will of course 
be strongly manned), the two bowmen get into the boat, with their oars 
ready to act ; the other men equally divided lay hold of each side of her 
gunwale, entering the water with her and forcing her head to the sea. 
They must not, however, all jump in until she is fairly afloat, for if she were 
to ground and ship a sea, the probability is that her head would be turned, 
and that the next sea would capsize her before they could prevent it. In 
such cases, loss of life is by no means uncommon. But when the boat is 
afloat her head is sometimes turned for want of readiness on the part of the 
rowers ; in such case, let two bowmen with oars or boat-hooks go to the 
bow on the lee of the boat, and by forcing them into the strand push the 



REMARKS. FAULTS TO BE AVOIDED. 85 

head of the boat seaward. Lying broadside to a sea is very dangerous, but 
if care and decision are used the boat can generally be kept head to sea ; 
in fact, it is much more easy to keep it so than to return it, when the surf 
has once thrown it toward the shore. 

A FEW IMPORTANT REMARKS OX CUTTER ROWING. 

Each oarsman must be particular to take his time from the strokesman. 

While rowing he must be strictly under the orders of the cockswain. 

Let it be ever kept in view, that keeping time and keeping stroke are the 
two great points for an oarsman's attention. 

When there is any swell on the water, caused either by the paddles of 
steamboats or rough weather, care should be taken always to keep the boat's 
head well facing it. 

FAULTS TO BE AVOIDED. 

Catching Crabs. — This term implies the act of falling backward from 
the seat, through not taking hold of the water in the attempt to pull. 

Not Keeping Time. — Independent of the awkwardness of the appearance, 
this habit will be an effectual bar to your rowing in concert with any mas- 
ter of the art. Not keeping time, recollect, is not putting your oar into the 
water at the same time as the stroke oar. 

Not Keeping Stroke. — This, be it observed, is totally different from the 
preceding fault. It is not doing work at the same time as the stroke 
oar ; and this may be neglected even when you have kept time by putting 
your oar in the water at the same moment as the strokesman did his. Though 
not so unseemly, it is yet the most destructive fault that can be committed; 
for it must be evident that the speed of the boat must depend upon the 
simultaneous and equal effort of its whole crew. Recollect, therefore, that 
the pull should commence the moment the blade is properly immersed in 
the water. 

Doubling the Body over the Oar at the end of the Stroke. — This prevents the 
shooting of the arms and body simultaneously forward, which is a most im- 
portant feature in good rowing. 

Jerking is a fault to which men who are powerful in the arms are particu- 
larly liable ; as, instead of throwing the body gradually back, and thus par- 
tially pulling by their weight, they depend solely upon the muscles of their 
arms. They, therefore, give a violent muscular effort, which not being con- 
tinued by falling back, the stroke ends, as it were, too soon, producing a 
jerk, which destroys the uniform swing throughout the boat, and thus de- 
creases the propulsive power, and ultimately tires out the man. It is very 
annoying to the other part of the crew. 

Rowing Round. — This fault arises from not entering the water deep enough 
at the first. The rower feels that he has not sufficient resistance (and is in 
danger of catching a crab), he consequently deepens his water with the 



86 150ATING. 

blade of an oar, forming a portion of a circle, and brings the flat part of the 
blade perpendicularly to the water, thereby tending to drag the boat down 
by its pressure ; this is a great fault, and must be avoided. 

Slacking Vie Anns Too Soon. — This not only decreases the power of tho 
stroke, but generally causes a positive impediment to the boat's rapid pro- 
gress; for the habit is generally accompanied by one or two additional 
errors, viz., either feathering the scull before it is out of the water; or 
allowing the boat to carry it along. In the first, you add to your own labor ; 
in the second, you, to a certain extent, stop the boat. Yery light boats are 
apt to cause these faults. The remedy in such a case is, to dip the scull 
deeper at tho commencement of the stroke ; but the learner must recollect 
that the same faults are committed in ordinary boats. 

Throwing up water in rowing must bo carefully avoided. It is excessively 
annoying to those on tho same side of the boat. 

Capping the end of tho oar with tho hand has a very awkward appear- 
ance, and conduces greatly to other faults. 

Rowing with a round back is another very common fault, and must bo 
avoided, because considerable loss of power is the consequence. 

We have now recapitulated most of the faults to which rowers or oarsmen 
arc subjected, and, taken in conjunction with the preceding directions, our 
hints cannot fail to make any person theoretically acquainted with the art, if 
he will take care thoroughly to comprehend what we have written. Prac- 
tice, however, must be had to make a good oarsman. A good theory in tho 
hands of a practical person may lead to perfection ; neither theory nor prac- 
tice alone will do so. The learner must not be disheartened by the difficul- 
ties he will be sure to meet with during his first attempts with the oar or 
6cull, not the least unpleasant of which will be his habit of catching crabs. 




81 



SAILING. 



23 






/v o /?/?/ co 



Although the sailing exercise of boys will necessarily be confined to a 
small boat, it is proper that they should be made acquainted with the dis- 
tinction between larger vessels, and be furnished with a vocabulary of terms 
belonging to the art of sailing. 

All sailing vessels are set down under the term ships, but, strictly speak- 
ing, a Ship is a vessel with three masts that are square-rigged; that is, the 
yards which support the square-sails are rigged at right angles to the masts. 
But all the sails are not square, the jib being triangular, and the spanker 
bow-sided, but not square. The hull or body of the vessel is divided into 
the forecastle, before the foremast, the waist, between the foremast and 
mainmast, and the quarter-deck, which is abaft or behind the mizzen-mast. 
These masts whose names you have had given you, are fitted with other 
masts, slipping into each other, and securely connected for the purpose of 
bearing its appropriate sail. Thus, the foremast or forward one is the 
foremast, and bears the foresail; the mast above that is the foretopmast, 
and bears the foretopsail; the one above that the foretop-gallant-masi, and 
bears the foretop-gallant-sail. The mainmast is divided in the same way 
into mainmast, maintopmast and maintop-gallant-mast, which bear seve- 
rally the mainsail, maintopsail and maintop-gallant-sail. The mizzen-mast 
is furnished with a sail rigged on the plane of the vessel's length, or " fore 
and aft;" and the bowsprit or jib-boom, winch projects from the front at 



88 



moro or less of an angle, supports with the foremast a triangular sail called 
the jib, also rigged fore and aft ; and has another mast attached to it, called 




the flying-jib-boom, which supports the flying-jib. There are usually square 
sails above the top-gallant-sails, that are called " royals," and distinguished 



i\ 



L 




by the names of the masts to which they are attached. Then there are addi- 
tional sails, projecting on either side of the square-sails, that are used in light 



SLOOP. DUTCH GALIOT. 



89 



winds, called studding-sails, and the booms, which support them, are attached 
to the extremities of the several yards. Between the masts are also trian- 
gular sails, called staysails. 




A Brig is rigged on the same principle as the ship, but has only two 
masts ; being a ship, as it were, with the mainmast taken out. 




DUTCH GALIOT. 



90 



A Schooner is a vessel with two masts, rigged fore and aft. She may 
carry galf- topsails, which are triangular sails, set above the main and fore- 




sails, or one or two square topsails before. In the last case she is usually 
called a "topsail schooner." A schooner has sometimes three masts, and is 
known as a three-masted schooner, or as a ship-rigged fore and aft. 

A Brigantine is a schooner, with square sails on the foremast, foretop- 
mast, and foretop-gallant-masts ; being a topsail schooner, with the addi- 
tion of a foresail. 

An Hermaphrodite Brig, vulgarly called a " morfydite" is brig-rigged fore, 
and schooner-rigged eft. It is almost peculiar to this country. 














CHINESE JU>T£. 



A Sloop is a vessel with one mast, and the sails, which consist of a main- 
sail, jib, and gaff-topsail, rigged in the plane of its length. The North 
River sloops are celebrated for their fast sailing. 



CHARACTERS OF A YACHT. 



91 



A Dutch Galiot is rigged like a schooner, but of a broader and more 
Chinese build, her bottom being nearly flat. 

A Billy-boy is rigged sometimes like a sloop, and sometimes like a schooner; 
but her bottom is nearly flat, and she draws but little water. 

A. Smack is a small vessel with one mast, like a cutter, used principally 
for fishing. 

A Felucca has two triangular sails, is used in the Mediterranean, and is 
particularly swift. It can also use oars in calm weather.* 

A Junk is a Chinese vessel, used either for war or merchandise. It is 
built very heavily. 

A Lugger has two or three masts, with sails hoisted on yards, something 
like a cutter's gaff-topsail, and some of them carry a jib. 

A Proa is used by the natives of the Ladrone Islands, and is remarkable 
for its swiftness and sailing close to the wind. The lee-side is quite straight, 
and the weather-side is convex, like a common boat. Both head and stern 
are equally sharp ; and in working her there is no necessity to tack or turn 




at any time. Besides this peculiarity of construction, the proa has on her 
lee-side what is called an " out-rigger," which is made of two poles, extend- 
ing about ten feet from her side, having at their extremity a piece of solid 
wood. This prevents her from having any leeway. She will sail with a 
good wind twenty miles an hour. 

WTe will now speak of the vessels we have most to do with — viz., yachts. 



CHARACTERS OF A YACHT. 

Speed, safety, and accommodation are the three first qualities of a yacht. 
She ought to be pleasing to the eye when afloat, of such a breadth as to 
carry her canvas with ease, and at the same time so sharp in her bow and 



92 



SAILING. 



well shaped astern as to displace her weight of water smoothly and grad- 
ually, while she leaves it in the same way. 

VARIOUS KINDS OF YACHTS. 

Yachts are of various kinds, according to their size. If more than eighty 
tons burden, the schooner is most suitable; for, as the spars are more 
numerous, they are proportionably lighter. The schooner, as has been 
before observed, has two masts — the foremast and mainmast; the one 
bearing the sail called the boom-foresail, and the other a mainsail. She 
has two or more head-sails, called stay-sail, forestay-sail, and jib. Her top- 
sails are either square or fore and aft. 

The Cutter has one mast and four sails — viz.: mainsail, maintopsail, 
foresail, and jib. Some smaller craft have larger jibs, and no foresail. 

The Dandy -rigged Yacht differs from a cutter, in having no boom for her 
mainsail, which can consequently be brailed up by a rope passing round it. 




She has a mizzen-mast standing in the stern, which sets a sail called a mizzen, 
and which is stretched on a horizontal spar, projecting over the stern. This 
style of rig is more safe for a yacht, as the boom in ordinary cutters is 
liable to sweep persons overboard ; and the sail can be taken in quicker by 
brailing it up than by lowering it down. 

The Hatteener has only two sails, a fore and mainsail, of a triangular 
shape. Each has a spar standing from the deck to the peak of the sail, and 
a boom at the bottom, like a cutter. This rig, from setting more canvas 
abaft, is well adapted for narrow waters. 

DESCRIPTION OF THE CUTTER- YACHT. 

But the vessel with which we have most to do in our directions for sail- 
ing is the Cutter- Yacht, which stands closer to the wind than any other 



CONSTRUCTION OF THE HULL. 



93 



kind of boat ; and of which we propose, in the first instance, to give a gen- 
eral description. 

CONSTRUCTION OF THE HULL. 

The first step in the construction of the hull is laying down the keel or 
backbone of the vessel ; which is done by fixing a strong piece of wood, 
generally oak, upon blocks, that the rest of the timber may be securely 
added ; the stem is then joined to the fore-post, nearly at right angles, slant- 
ing a little forward as it ascends ; and the stern-post to its after or hinder 
part, sloping upward and backward. The timbers and ribs are next cut out 
of solid wood, and placed transversely on the keel, their width varying 
according to the lines of a plan previously drawn out — being, of course, 
farthest apart at the beam ; these, as well as the planks of larger craft, are 




THE AiLEEICA. 



made to bend into the required shape by being steamed and bolted in while 
hot. The skeleton being completed, her planks are then secured by copper 
or iron nails to the timbers, and riveted. The deck is made of narrow 
planks, running fore and aft. From the level of the deck, her sides are 
raised by upright timbers, called " stancheons, r cased over by the bulwarks, 
and surmounted by a rail called the "gunwale." Some yachts are only half- 
decked, the after-part being left open and fitted with seats ; but, in order to 
prevent the water from getting in, a portion of deck, called water-ways, is 
left at each side ; which opposes a further barrier by its terminating on the 
inner edge in a high crest or combing. The stepping the mast requires 
great care, since the good or bad sailing of the boat depends very greatly 
upon it. The model of the celebrated yacht, "The America," after all the 
study and ingenuity that have been applied to yacht-building, seems to 



SAILING. 



resemble the simple yet beautiful model which nature has given us in the 
duck. The bow of this vessel rises very gradually for some distance along 
the keel, like the breast of the duck; and, further imitating the same 
model, her beam or widest part is abaft, or further back than the centre. 
This superior vessel will sail nearly four points off the wind. We have now 
glanced at all the principal parts of the hull, except that all-important part, 
the rudder ; which swings by a hinge from the stern-post, and is moved by 
a handle fixed to its upper part, bearing the name of "a tiller," and which 
is used to steer the boat. Before proceeding with our instructions for sail- 
ing a yacht, it will be necessary to describe the action of the rudder ; as the 
art of steering is the nicest and most important branch of seamanship. 

The rudder is a flat board, with a pole rising up on the side, which is 
fastened to the vessel ; on the top of which is fixed the tiller. In large 
vessels there are two ropes fastened to the tiller, which are carried through 
blocks on each side of the vessel ; then brought 
back through blocks fastened on the mizzen* 
mast, and passed round a wheel, by which 
means a greater command is obtained over the 
rudder. When the tiller is moved to the right 
(starboard), the rudder, of course, is forced m 
the water to the left (port). As the vessel 
moves on, the water presses against the rudder 
on the port side, and thus forces her stern to 
the starboard side, and her bow to the port. 
When the tiller is moved to the left, it of course 
produces a contrary effect. If the ship is moving backward, then, by mov- 
ing the tiller to the right, the bow is also turned to the right ; for the water 
presses against the rudder behind it on the left side, and thus pushes the 
stern to the left. In steering, care must be taken not to steer too much — 
that is, not to move the rudder too violently, or more than is necessary — as 
this materially stops her way. 

We here present the young yachtsman with a cutter at anchor, with her 
ropes and spars numbered ; and which ought to be thoroughly known, as 
well as the uses to which they are applied in sailing a yacht : 




1. Stem. 

2. Stern 

3. Tiller. 

4. Anchor. 

5. Cable. 

6. Bowsprit. 
V, Bobstay. 

8. Mast. 

9. Topmast. 
10. Truck. 



11. Yane and Spindle. 

12. Cross-trees. 

13. Trussle-trees. 

14. Gaff. 

15. Boom. 

16. Topmast-shroud. 

17. Topmast-backstay. 

18. Topmast-stay. 

19. Runner and Tackle. 

20. TraveUer for Jib. 



21. Forestay. 

22. Topping Lift. 

23. Lift Blocks. 

24. Main sheet. 

25. Peak Halliards. 

28. Foresheet. 

29. Signal Halliards. 

30. Companion. 

31. Forecastle. 

32. Rudder. 



SOMETHING ABOUT THE MASTS, SPARS, ROPES, ETC. 95 




CUTTER AT ANCHOR. 



SOMETHING ABOUT THE MASTS, SPARS, ROPES, ETC. 
The Mast (8) is a spar set nearly upright, inclining a little aft, to support 
yards and sails. In a yacht, it is kept in its place by two shrouds on each 
side, made of strong rope, and fastened to the sides of the vessel. 




CUTTER BEFORE THE WIND. 



06 



The Bowsprit (6) is a spar carried out from the forepart of a yacht, secured 
at its iuuer eud between two strong posts piercing the deck, called " the bitts." 
It is kept in its place by the bobstay (7), which is fastened to the stem, and 
by a shroud on each side secured to the bow. 

The Boom (15) is that spar which, sets out the mainsail below, and is 
attached at one end to the mast by a swivel cable, called the "goose-neck," 
and is eased off or hauled in at the other by the main-sheet (24), which is a 
rope passing from the end of the boom through a block on the side of the 
vessel. 

The Gaff (14) sets out the mainsail above, and slides up and down the 
mast by means of a crescent end, which embraces it. The sides of this 
curve are called "horns." 

The Topmast (9) stands above the mast, and is made to slide up and down. 
On it a topsail (i. e.. a gaff-topsail) is set in light winds ; but both sail and 
mast are generally lowered in squally weather. It is kept steady by a back- 
stay (17) on each side of the foretopmast stay, The latter is brought down 
to the bowsprit. 

Bopes. — There are various ropes to hoist and lower sails, called hal- 
liards. There are also other ropes of great importance, especially 
those called the sheets, which are to haul in the sails, and make them 
stand to the wind. In a yacht, the main- 
sail has sometimes a sheet on each side; 
and sometimes only one sheet reeved through 
double blocks, which travel on an iron rod, 
called a "horse," from side to side. The jib 
has two sheets, the starboard and port (right 
and left). The foresail has the same, except 
in some instances, when it has but one sheet 
working on a traveller, like the mainsail. 
The topsail has only \ one, which is rove 
through a sheave at the end of the gaff, and 
a block at the throat of the gaff, and then 
down to a cleat or fastening place on the 
I /A 1 1| \ deck. Signal halliards are for hauling up 

/ yk \| \ \^» the colors, and pass through a small sheave 

/|j|§pif? ^^^y/ ' m ^ e truc ^ ( 10 )r at tne en( ^ °f tne topmast. 

iWKv ^^^/f ^- ne ensign halliards are reeved through a 

■ ■ * ^ small block at the peak end, and lead down to 

the boom. The other ropes on board a yacht 
spars, and are called " standing-rigging," while 
" 'running-rigging." 




TOPMAST AND FORETOPMAST STAY. 



are for the support of the 

those used for the sails are called ' 

~We trust we have given our young readers a tolerable idea of a cutter- 
yacht. "We will now proceed to describe the common sail-boat, a little craft, 
not so complicated in construction, and one which our juvenile friends will 
learn how to manage more readily. 



THE SAIL-BOAT. 



97 



\ 



THE SAIL-BOAT. 

The sail-boat is sloop-rigged, with or without a jib ; but differs in the fact 
that she has no main boom nor gaff, the sail being kept up by a sprit Her 
rig may be described as follows : She has one mast, with a mainsail, A, and 
a foresail, B ; one mast, a sprit, 1. and a short bowsprit, 2. The mast will 




have one shroud on each side, and a forestay to the stem, each set up by 
lanyards. The mainsail will be hoisted by a main halliard passing through 
a hole, or over a sheave in the mast, and it is a very good plan to have this 
hole or sheave above the shrouds, as also the hole for the fore-halliards, one 
hole being above the other. The sprit fits into an eye at the peak of the 
mainsail, and into a becket or snotter round the mast ; and large boats have a 
rope to hoist and keep up the snotter. In small boats, the snotter, when 
wetted, sticks tight enough to the mast. The main-sheet works on a horse at 
the stern. The fore-halliards pass through a hole in the mast-head, and the 
foresail is laced to the forestay. The foresheets lead through holes in the 
knees. To set the sails, hoist the mainsail by the main-halliards chock 
up, or as far as it will go, and then belay the main-halliards to one of the 
cleats; then catch hold of the peak of the mainsail, and double the main- 
sail round forward of the mast ; then put the upper end of the sprit into 
the eye, and shove the sprit up. To do this properly requires practice ; in 
large boats there is a lashing to keep the eye from blowing off the end of 
the sprit, and the beginner may put a lashing if he likes. Then put the 
lower end of the sprit into the snotter, and hoist the snotter up the mast 



OS SAILING. 

till the mainsail begins to wrinkle from the tack to the peak; then haul the 
mainsheet taut, and belay it till you are ready to start. The foresail is 
usually wrapped around the forestay; untoggie the sheets and unwrap tho 
foresail, then toggle on the sheets again, ship the tiller, ana the boat will be 
ready. 

Tho usual small sail-boat, however, is rigged without a foresail or jib, 
and (lie mast, in order to balance it, is set somewhat forward of the spot 
where it stands in the cut. It has no shroud or forestay, being merely 
shipped into a thwart running across the boat, and secured in a step below. 
It is set, too, with more of a rake, or pitch backward, than in the cut. 
Such a boat, which can be safely and easily managed by one, is the best for 
the young yachtsman. 

Getting into his little boat, the beginner, who should have a skilled grown 
person with him as companion, will soon learn the principles on which a 
boat tacks or is p> u t about, how to jibe safely, how to reef the mainsail and 
the foresail and how to fit a reefed snotter, how to stoiu the sail and moor the 
boat, and how to pick up moorings and to come alongside. Sailing boats are 
usually made fast by a chain to a stone under water ; when the boat gets 
under ivay, the chain is let go, and is picked up again by a rope, one end of 
which is made fast to the chain, the other to a piece of wood or small cask 
called a buoy. To pick up this buoy again, sometimes the sails are lowered 
and the boat runs at it, but usually tho boat is taken to leeward, and at the 
proper distance is luffed up, so as to come head to wind, and stop as nearly 
as may be over the buoy ; and to do this with certainty requires much 
practice. The beginner should go where he has plenty of room, taking out 
a buoy or piece of wood, and practise picking that up till he can measure 
his distance pretty accurately. To do this, however, and in fact to sail a 
boat at all, a clear understanding of the principles of sailing is of great 
assistance. 

TO SAIL A BOAT. 

Everybody can understand how a boat can sail before the wind — a box for 
a boat, with a coat or umbrella for a sail, can do that, but to sail with the 
wind on the side, or to make way against the wind, is far more difficult ; 
in fact, persons not accustomed to it often doubt the possibility-of doing so. 
In explaining this, we will consider the sails as quite fiat, for the nearer 
they can be brought to flatness the better, and wherever they are not flat 
there is a loss. Supposing the sails, then, to be fiat, and the wind to strike 
them, part of the force is lost (as will be understood on mechanical princi- 
ples), part of it presses against the flat surface of the sail, and perpendicu- 
larly to it. This tends partly to drive the boat ahead, partly to drive the 
boat bodily to leeward, and if the boat was a box or tub, she would go in a 
direction between the two ; but as boats are usually constructed, they are 
sharp at the fore-end, and the surface opposed in that direction is not more 
than one-seventh of the surface which the nearly flat side opposes — hence 



TO SAIL A BOAT. \)\) 

the boat is driven easily ahead, but only a little or not at all to leeward ; 
and boats are constructed so as to oppose as little resistance ahead and as 
much on the side as possible. Any boat will sail with the wind astern, and 
most boats will sail with the wind on the quarter — i, e., blowing in any 
direction between the stern and the broadside ; but only good boats will sail 
with the wind on the bow or before the beam, and then not when the wind is 
more than four points before the beam, reckoning by the thirty-two points 
of the compass, and to do that, the sails must be well set, and the boat 
pretty good. To explain how this is effected, let us suppose a boat with her 
head pointing exactly toward the wind, then her sails will only flap about 
and tend to drive her astern. Now suppose her bow gradually turned 
away from the wind; if the sails are hauled pretty Hat, after a time, usually 
when her bow is four points or the eighth of a circle off from the wind, the 
sails will fill with wind, and, on the principles already explained, she will 
move ahead. And it is obvious that, after having gone some distance in 
this direction, she may be put about and go at a similar angle to the wind 
in the other direction, and will thus have advanced against the wind, or 
towards the quarter from which the wind is blowing. This is called tacking 
or turning to windward, and to do this well is the greatest proof of a good 
boat or of good sailing. In sailing to windward, the sails are trimmed or 
hauled aft to an angle which varies for each boat, and must be found by ex- 
perience ; they should be kept just full of wind — if empty they are doing 
no good, or even harm; if too full, the boat is off her course, and not doing 
her best to windward. A rough rule is to keep the flag or vane just over 
the mainsail. Boats ought always to carry a weather helm — i. e., the bow 
should have a tendency to turn toward the wind. Putting weight in the 
bow makes the weather-helm stronger, putting it in the stern or increasing 
the head sails has the reverse effect. TVhen the wind is on the starboard 
or right hand side of the vessel, she is said to be on the starboard tack ; 
when the wind is on the port, larboard, or left side, she is said to be on the 
port tack; and when vessels meet, that which is on the starboard tack either 
keeps straight or luffs, that which is on the port tack gives way and passes 
to leeward. 

To sail with the wind on the bows the boat must have a keel. In a sail- 
boat this is generally made movable, sliding up and down, within a well in 
the centre, and is sometimes called the sliding-keel, but more generally the 
centre-board. A skiff may be made to tack by holding the flat blade of a 
scull deep in the water, against the side of the boat, on the leeward side ; 
but this is inconvenient. 

"While engaged in learning how to manage a boat it is as well to get an 
old sailor to teach you how to make the various knots, splices, and 
hitches for which you will have constant occasion. 

Having informed the young sailor of what is necessary to be done on 
board, we will now impress on his mind a few useful nautical terms and 
maxims, which may lead to the preservation of life and limb. 



10U 



SAILING. 



OF THE MARINER'S COMPASS. 

The ancients, whose only guides over the trackless waters were the heav- 
enly bodies, so often obscured by clouds, could not venture far from shore. 
It is the compass which has enabled us to steer boldly across the deep. 
The directive power of the loadstone has been long known to the Chinese, 
and it was brought over to Europe about the year 1260. The communica- 
tion of the magnetic power to steel and suspending it on a pivot, is un- 
doubtedly a European invention. The compass is composed of a magnetic 

needle suspended freely on a pivot, 
and supporting a card marked with 
the thirty-two points of direction 
into which the horizon is divided, 
and which are thence called the 
points of the compass. The 
needle always points nearly north, 
and the direction of the boat may be 
easily seen by looking at the card. 
The whole apparatus on board a 
ship is enclosed in a box with a 
glass cover, to allow the card to be 
seen without being disturbed by the 
wind. This box is also sometimes 
suspended, to prevent the needle 
being affected by the motion of the vessel. The whole is then placed at the 
binnacle, in sight of the helmsman. In the inside of that part of the com- 
pass-box which is directly in a line with the bow, is a clear black stroke, 
called the lubber line, which the helmsman uses to keep his course ; that is, 
he must always keep the point of the card which indicates her course point- 
ing at the lubber line. Every young yachtsman must learn to box the com- 
pass : that is, to repeat all its points in order. 

CAUTIONS AND DIRECTIONS. 

1. Never leave any thing in the gangway, and keep the decks clear. 

2. Coil up all ropes ; and have a place for every thing, and every thing in 
its place. 

3. Take care that in tacking or jibing the boom does not knock you over- 
board. 

4. Stand clear of ropes' ends and blocks flying about, when you are tack- 
ing, and the sails shaking. 

5. Keep a good look-out ahead, and also for squalls, which may generally 
be observed to windward. 

6. Always obey the orders of the steersman promptly. 

7. Keep all your standing rigging taut. 

8. When the boat is on the wind, sit on the weather side. 




NAUTICAL TERMS. 101 

9 Should the boat capsize, keep yourself clear of the rigging and swim 
ashore. 

The young yachtsman should on no account attempt to take command of 
a boat till he is thoroughly experienced, and should never go in one without 
having at least one experienced hand on board ; he should always have his 
eyes open to what is going on, and be ever ready to lend assistance with 
the greatest promptitude. 

NAUTICAL TERMS. 

We shall now give a few of the most common nautical terms, by which 
the gear and different parts of a vessel are known. For the most part, we 
shall speak generally, but when we speak particularly of a rope or sail, and 
the vessel is not named, the reader must apply our remarks to the cutter, as 
the vessel best adapted for a yacht. 

Saul, to pull. 

Taut, tight. 

Starboard, to the right. 

Larboard, to the left. 

Close-hauled ; or, on the wind; or, flying to windward, steering close to the 
wind. Cutters have good way within five points of the wind; square- 
rigged vessels not within six. 

Wind on the beam; or, sailing free, sailing with the wind across the waist 
of the vessel; her head is then eight points from the wind. 

Before the wind, sailing with the wind right aft, or behind you, that is, 
with the head sixteen points from the wind. 

Sailing with the wind abaft the beam, sailing with the head of the vessel 
more than eight points from the wind, but not sixteen. 

Sailing luith the wind before the beam, with the vessel's head less than eight 
points from the wind, but not close-hauled. 

Luff, keep nearer the wind; keep your luff, means, keep close to the 
wind. 

Belay, make fast. 

Steady, keep the helm amidships. 

Haul aft, more towards the stern. 

Put the helm down, put the helm to leeward. 

Put the helm up, bring it to windward. 

Leeward, the point to which the wind blows. 

Windward, the point from which the wind blows. 

Ship the tiUer, fix it in the rudder head. 

Unship, means, of course, exactly the reverse of the above. 

Jibe, the act of bringing over the sail from one side of the vessel to the 
other. 

Bend the jail, fix it in its proper place. 

Bowse the sail well up, pull it strongly into its place. 



IOl] SAILING. 

TJic throat of the mainsail (a fore and aft sa.il), that part of the sail which 
is fixed to the peak close to the mast. 

The Peaky the stick which is at the top of a fore and aft pail. 

The Boom, the stick which is at the bottom of a fore and aft sail. 

Head-sails, any sails at the head of a vessel ; in cutters, foresail, fore- 
staysail, jib, and any others she may carry before the mast, except a square- 
sail, which is sometimes used for running before the wind. 

Fore and aft sails, such sails as the mainsail of a cutter when stretched 
fore and aft, by its sheets. (See description of cutter and engraving.) 

Sheets, the ropes by which the lower sails are made fast in the position 
desired; we say, for instance, "Haul taut the foresheet," which means, 
tighten the foresheet. Each sheet is distinguished by the name of the sail to 
which it is attached ; for instance, the mainsheet means the sheet belonging 
to the mainsail ; in like manner, jibsheet, foresheet, &c. The jib, however, 
has two sheets, one on each side of the forestay, for the convenience of 
tacking ; the foresail has but one, which is made fast to the traveller of the 
foresheet horse ; as the boat tacks, the traveller enables the foresail to pass 
from one side of the boat to the other. 

Foresheet horse, a bar of iron which crosses from one gunwale to the other, 
to which the foresheet is fastened by means of a traveller ; it is an inch or 
two above the deck. 

Traveller, in the case of the foresheet horse, is the ring that passes back- 
ward and forward along the foresheet horse, as the foresail is jibed from one 
side to the other. Speaking generally, the term means an easy ring attached 
to a sail, and running upon a boom bowsprit or mast, to enable you to haul 
out or haul up a sail. 

Yards, the sticks by which square-sails are set. 

Square-sails, such sails as the main-topsail of a brig. (See description 
of a brig and engraving.) 

Tack, to turn a vessel from one side to the other, with her head toward 
the wind. When a vessel is obliged to tack several times to get to wind- 
ward, we say she is beating to windward ; when she is tacking to get 
up or down a channel, we say she is beating up or down ; — by the by, in 
rough weather she often gets a beating in the attempt ; when tacking to get 
off a lee shore, wo say she is clawing off. 

Halliards, the rope by which signals or sails are hoisted. "We say, for 
instance, "haul taut the peak halliards," which is an order to hoist the peak 
of the sail well up. 

Lee runner and tackle, a substitute for a backstay; used in cutters, on 
account of its being easily removed when going before the wind. 

Stays : in tacking, the vessel is said to be in stays from the time the jib- 
sheet is let fly until the foresail draws. 

Bobstay, the rope fixed at the end of the bowsprit, and fastened about 
half way down the stern. Chains are frequently used for this pur- 
pose. 



NAUTICAL TERMS. 103 

Backstays, forestays, etc., etc. : each of these denote the particular part the 
rope supports. The former are ropes from the after part of the head of the 
top-mast of a cutter-rigged vessel to the after part of the chains on each 
side of the ship ; the latter is a rope from the topmast-head to the farther 
• part of the bowsprit ; it there passes through a block and comes in by the 
stern-head, and is then made fast to its cleat. 

Cleat, a projecting piece of wood or iron, to which sheets or halliards are 
made fast. 

Shrouds are also supports to the masts. Each shroud is distinguished by 
the part it is intended to support — for instance, the bowsprit and main- 
shrouds. 

The main-shrouds are the ropes fastened at the end of the bowsprit, and 
extending to each side of the bows. 

Boom-guy, a small tackle, one end of which is hooked to the main-boom, 
and the other forward, to prevent the boom from swinging. 

Topping-lift, strong ropes, which are near the end of the main-boom, and 
led through blocks on each side of the mast, just under the cross-trees, from 
whence it descends about half way, and is connected with the gunwale or 
deck by a tackle. 

Bow-line, a rope made fast to the foremost shroud, and passed through a 
thimble in the after lurch of the fore-sail, then round the shroud again, and 
round the sheet. 

Thimble, a small ring, of iron or brass, inserted into the sails. 

Cringles, short loops of rope, with a thimble inside them, and spliced to 
the lurch of the saiL 

Gaskets, ropes made by plaiting rope-yarns. 

Slack: take in the slack- draw in the loose rope. 

Lanyard, a small rope. 

Beef: taking in a reef, is tying in a portion of the saiL 

Reef-tackle, a small tackle formed by two hook-blocks, one of which is 
hooked to the under part of the boom, about one-third of its length from 
the mast; and the other, farther aft. The fall is belayed to a cleat under 
the boom. 

Earing, a short rope used in reefing, one end of which is made fast to the 
boom, at the same distance from the mast as the cringle, to which it belongs ; 
it ascends and passes through the cringle, then descends and passes through 
a sheave on the side of the boom ; then it is passed on board and stopped 
to the boom by means of its lanyard, or small line spliced into its end for 
the purpose ; this lanyard is also to make it fast when the sail is reefed and 
the tackle removed. 

Bowsprit fid, a bolt of iron that passes through the bowsprit bits and the 
heel of the bowsprit, to keep the bowsprit in its place. 

Bowsprit bits, two stout pieces of wood, between which the bowsprit 
passes. If the reader has noticed the way a carriage-pole is fixed, he will 
readily conceive how the bowsprit is fastened between the bits. 



104 



SAILING. 



nek, the places on the side of the vessel to which the shrouds are 
fastened. 

The quarter of a vessel, is the place on either side at which the side and 
the stem meet. 

MulshipSi midway between the sides of the vessel. 

Abeam, at right angles with the keel of the vessel. The term has risen 
from the beams of the vessel lying that way. 

Cast her : in first making sail, it means placing the head of the vessel in 
the most advantageous position. 




Wear, to ; to come round on the other side of the wind, without backing. 

Let A B be the vessel, G- the direction of the wind; A B is sailing in 
the direction B C, and wants to change her course to AD; if she tacks, 
she traverses the direction C H D ; if she wears, she goes off from the 
wind in the direction CED. 

Hehri's-a-ke, the call of the helmsman when his helm is hard down in 
tacking. 

Ready about, a command for all hands to be ready in tacking. 




HORSEMANSHIP. 

% 



105 



HORSEMANSHIP. 




RIDING. 

Among the possessions which the boyish imagination pictures as treasures 
of price, a horse or a pony, if it be even the smallest sheltie that ever wore 
a shaggy mane hanging over his brows, will always hold a foremost place. 
What boy, who has ever been the master of a pony, does not remember the 
triumphant pleasure he felt on the day when his proprietorship began ? 
How he rejoiced in his new acquisition ! 

Now, what we want to do in the following pages is, to give our young 
readers such information about that noble animal, the horse, as shall make 
them appreciate him more than ever, from a knowledge of his real qualities 
and usefulness ; and we want, moreover, to enable them not merely to 
admire the horse with an ignorant wonder, because he is beautiful to look 
at, but because they all know about him; besides, no boy who does not know 
how to manage a horse, and what to do in case of accident or emergency, 
should ride one. He only who can trust in his own knowledge and re- 
sources can really be called independent. Any one of our young readers 
may at any time be taught, by practical experience, that knowledge is 
power, and ignorance weakness; and, therefore, before boy of ours was 
intrusted with a pony, we should take good care that he knew something 
of the parts, qualities, and character of the horse, and that the new acqui- 
sition would not suffer in his hands. 

The parts of the horse will be understood by a reference to the cut and 
explanation on the following page. 
5* 



106 



HORSEMANSHIP. 



TERMS USED BY HORSEMEN. 




A. Forehead 

B. Face. 

C. Muzzle. 

D. Jowl. 

E. Gullet 

F. Windpipe. 

G. Point of the shoulder. 
H. Breast, or bosom. 

I. Ann. 

J. Knee. 

K. Cannon. 

L. Large pastern. 

M. Small pastern. 



O. Hoof. 
P. HeeL 

Q. Flank. 

E. Sheath. 

S. Stifles. 

T. Coronet 

U. Hock. 

T. Hoof. 

W. Small pastern. 

X. Large pastern 

Y. Fetlock. 

Z. Cannon. 



AA. Point of hock, or ham. 

BB. Hamstring. 

CC. Thigh, or gaskin. 

DD. Quarter. 

EE. Dock. 

FF. Croup. 

GG. Hip. 

HH. Loins. 

II. Back. 

JJ. Withers. 

KK. Crest. 

LL. PolL 



The left side of a horse is called the "near side" and the right, the "off 
side.''' TTe now come to 

THE MARKS OF AGE IN THE HORSE. 

By means of the gradual wearing down of the front teeth, or nippers, 
the age of the horse may be known. Each of the nippers has a hollow in 
its upper surface, which is very deep and black when the tooth first rises 
above the gum, and is gradually effaced by the friction caused by the crop- 
ping of the grass, or by biting at the manger, or other kinds of rubbing ; 
but as these vary a great deal according to circumstances, so the precise 
degree of wearing away will also be liable to fluctuations ; and the rules 
laid down only approximate to the truth, without positive accuracy as to a 
few months. There are also two sets of teeth; a milk set, which first rise, 



THE PACES OF THE HORSE. 



107 



beginning at once after birth, and a permanent set, which replace the milk 
teeth as they fall out. The milk teeth come up two at a time, but all aro 
up by the end of the first year. The permanent teeth, also, make their 
appearance by twos, the first pair showing themselves in the place of the 
two middle milk teeth in the third year, and being generally level with the 
other milk teeth by the end of the fourth year, by which time the next pair 
have fallen out, and the permanent teeth have shown themselves in their 
places. At five years of age the horse has lost all his nippers, and his corner 
permanent teeth have nearly completed their growth. The tusks are also 
above the gums. The centre nippers are now much worn, and the next 
are becoming slightly so. At six years old the " mark" in the centre nippers 
is quite gone ; at seven }-ears of age this disappears from the next pair, and 
at eight from the corner nippers ; after which, none but a professed judge 
is likely to make out the age of the horse by an inspection of his mouth ; 
and, indeed, at all times the tyro is liable to be deceived by the frauds of 
the low horse-dealer, who cuts off the top of the teeth, and then scoops out 
a hollow with a gouge ; after which a hot iron gives the black surface 
which in the natural state is presented to the eye. This trick is called 
" bishoping." 

THE PACES OF THE HORSE. 

The natural paces of the horse are the walk and the gallop ; to them are 
added by man the trot and the canter, and sometimes the amble and the 




run. In the walk, each leg is taken up -and put down separately, one after 
the other, the print of the hind foot in good walkers generally extending a 



108 



HORSEMANSHIP. 



few inches beyond that of the fore foot; but in ponies this is not often seen, 
and generally the short, quick walk shown in the foregoing sketch, is the pace 
of that little animal. The order in which the feet touch the ground is as 
follows: 1st, the right fore foot; 2d, the left hind foot; 3d, the left fore 
foot ; 4th, the right hind foot. 




The gallop consists of a succession of leaps, during a great part of which 
all the feet are off the ground. As the feet come to the ground they strike 




it in regular succession ; but the exact order will depend upon the lead, 
which may be either with the left or right fore leg. When the lead is with 
the right fore leg, the right hind foot comes down first, then the right fore 



FORM OF A HORSE. 



109 



foot and loft hind leg, and lastly, tho left fore foot. In the trot, two legs of 
opposite sides are moved exactly together, and touch the ground at the 
same moment; whilst in the amble the two legs of each side move together, 
and the horse is supported for the instant upon the half of his usual and 
regular foundation. To -counteract this deficiency in the centre of gravity, 
the body is balanced from side to side in a waddling manner. 

VARIETIES OF THE HORSE SUITABLE FOR BOYS. 

Besides the several kinds of horses suitable for grown people, those for 
boys are the galloway, the cob, and the pon}~. The first of these may be 
considered either a small horse or a large pony, and is usually about four- 




teen hands high ; and though strong and capable of carrying weight, yet of 
a moderately light and active make. He is so called from the district where 
he was originally bred in large numbers. The cob is a thick and very strong 
pony, or galloway, frequently made to look still more so by cutting his 
tail and mane short, called "hogging" them, as in the above cut. 

Many ponies are now bred almost of pure Arabian blood, and they are 
well suited for lads who have mastered the early difficulties connected with 
keeping the seat under all ordinary circumstances ; but as they are gener- 
ally very high spirited, they are scarcely suited for the beginner, and he 
had better content himself with an animal of more plebeian pedigree and 
sluggish temperament. 

FORM OF THE HORSE. 

It is a common observation of the horseman that the horse can go in all 
forms ; and this is borne out by the fact that he does occasionally do so ; 
but nevertheless, it is well known, that among a large number it will be 
found that those whose form is most in accordance with the shape consid- 



110 



HORSEMANSHIP. 



ered the best by good judges, will turn out the best movers. In technical 
language, the horse whose ''points" are the best will be the best horse. 
These points are considered to be : a neat head, well set on a lean, wiry 
neck, the latter with a very gentle curve, whose convexity looks upward 
(the opposite form to this makes the "ewe neck"); moderately high with- 
ers ; a sloping shoulder, wide in the blade, which should be well furnished 
with muscles; strong, muscular loins; a croup not too straight nor too 
drooping, with the tail set on with an elegant sweep ; ribs well rounded, and 
carried back near to the hips, so as to make the horse what is called "well 
ribbed;" circumference or girth of good dimensions, indicating plenty of 
" bellows' room ; " thighs and arms muscular; hocks and knees bony and 
large, without being diseased ; cannon bones large and flat, with the sus- 
pensory ligament and tendon large, strong, and clearly defined; fetlock 
joints strong, but not round and inflamed. The eye should be full, clear, 
and free from specks ; and the ears should be moderately small and erect ; 
the feet should be round, and not contracted at the heels, with a well-formed 
frog. 



THE ACCOUTREMENTS AND AIDS 
Required by the young amateur, are either a pad or a saddle, according to 
his age, together with a bridle and a w r hip or stick. Spurs are seldom 

d 




desirable for any but the accomplished rider, as they are apt to irritate the 
pony if not used with discretion, and it is rather difficult to put an old head 



THE ACCOUTREMENTS AND AIDS. 



Ill 



upon young shoulders. If the learner is very young, a pad which, is made 
without any tree affords a better hold for the knees than a regular saddle, 
and will also enable him to ride without stirrups, which feat he will hardly 
manage on an ordinary smooth saddle. The foregoing illustration will give 

our young friends a good idea of the saddle and bridle. a is a single 

bridle or snaffle; b is a double bridle, or curb and snaffle combined. 
The saddle consists of a pig-skin, 

strained and stretched over a wooden 

tree raised in the front at the pommel 

(c) ; and behind, also, is a long ridge 

called the cantel (d), between which is the 

seat. The sides are made up by the flaps 

(e). Attached to the tree above, and 

lying on the flap, is the stirrup leather 

supporting the stirrup (/). Underneath. 

the flap is a false and padded flap, on 

which lie the girths (y), which aro 

buckled to leather straps, fastened to 

the tree above. The stirrups are of the 

annexed form, but are often, for boys, 

made much lighter, which, however, 

is a mistake, as the foot is much more 

easily thrown out of a light stirrup than 

from a heavy one. They ought always 

to be used with strong stirrup leathers, 

and these should be attached to the sad- 
dle by spring-bars, which release the stir- 
rups in case of the leg being entangled 

in them after a fall. The groom should 

always remove the leathers after the 

ride, and replace them on the oppo- 
site side of the saddle, by which means 
their tendency to hang, as shown at 
a, is rectified, and they assume the 

position indicated by the one marked &, both representing the left or near 
side. 

The bridle is either a single or a double reined one, according to the 
mouth of the pony ridden. A single-reined bridle is usually a snaffle, it 
being very improper to allow any one to ride with a curb alone, unless he 
has very steady and light hands. The snaffle bit is merely a jointed bar of 
iron (5 5) in the accompanying sketch, but when used alone i^has a light 
cross-bar, as well as the ring there shown, in order to prevent tHe bit being 
pulled through the mouth. This, however, in the double-reined bridle is 
omitted, since it would interfere with the action of the curb. Snaffles are 
either smooth or twisted, and are made of all sizes, the smallest being only 




112 



HORSEMANSHIP. 



adapted for occasional use, and not for the hands of the learner, who should 
a large smooth one. The curb-bit consists of three parts: the mouth- 
piece (I ), which usually has a bend in it called the port, for the purpose of 
pressing against the roof of the mouth; secondly, of the cheek-piece (2), 
which has a ring (3) at the lower end for the attachment of the rein, and 
another at the upper end for the head-piece of the bridle ; and thirdly, the 
curb-chain (-1). This chain is pressed against the outside of the lower jaw 
by the upper arm of the curb used as a lever, and it should be hooked up 
sufficiently tight to act upon it by pulling the rein, whilst at the same time it 
should be loose enough to prevent its fretting the jaw. This delicacy of 
adjustment requires some little practice, and the young rider should always 
ask his teacher to show him the proper mode of applying the curb-chain. 
Sometimes a martingale is needed, in order to keep the pony's head down, but 
generally the young rider is better without it, if he will keep his hands 
well down, and avoid all jerking of the mouth. 

MOUNTING. 

-The rider, even at the earliest age, should at first examine the girths and 

the bridle, and see if they are properly adjusted ; for though when leaving 

home he may be able to depend upon a steady and experienced groom, yet 

after putting up at strange -Stables, he is liable to be led into an accident by 




careless servants, and therefore it is better to get into the habit of always in- 
specting these essentials to safety and comfort. If there is an attendant groom, 
he brings the pony up to the place where the expectant rider is standing, and 
then holds him there, keeping in front of him with a rein in each hand, or, 
if the animal is fidgety, laying hold of both reins with the left hand, and then 
pressing him toward the rider by the right. The next thing to be done is 
for the rider to stand at the shoulder of the pony with his left side toward 
that part. He then lays hold of the reins with his left hand, drawing them 



DISMOUNTING. THE MANAGEMENT OF THE REINS. 



113 



up so short as to feel the mouth, and at the same time twisting a lock of 
the mane in his fingers so as to steady the hand. Next, the left foot is 
placed in the stirrup, when the attitude is presented, exactly as shown in 
the preceding page. At this moment a spring is given from the right foot, 
the right hand reaches the cantel of the saddle, and the body is raised till the 
right leg is brought up to the level of the left, when the slightest imaginable 
pause is made, and then the right leg is thrown over the back of the pony, 
while the right hand leaves its hold, and the body falls into its position in 
the centre of the saddle ; after which, the right foot has only to be placed 
in the stirrup to complete the act of mounting. 

DISMOUNTING 

Is exactly the reverse of the last process, and requires, first, the reins to be 
shortened and held in the left hand with a lock of the mane ; secondly, the 
right leg is taken out of the stirrup, and is thrown over the back of the 
horse until it is brought down to the level of the other leg. After thi3, if 





the pony is of a small size, suitable to that of the rider, the body is gently 
lowered to the ground, and the left leg is liberated from the stirrup : but if 
the horse is too high for this, the foot is taken out of the stirrup by raising 
the body "by means of the hands on the pommel and cantel of the saddle, and 
then the body is lowered to the ground by their assistance. 



THE MANAGEMENT OF THE REINS 

Is of great importance to the comfort cf the rider, and also to his appear- 
ance, for unless they are held properly, the body is sure to be awkwardly 
balanced. When the single rein is used, the best position is to place the 
middle, ring, and little fingers between the two reins, and then to turn 



11-4 



llOKSBMANSIHI*. 



both over the fore-finger, where they are tightly held by the thumb. In all 
eases the thumb ought to point toward the horse's ears, by which the elbow 
is sure to be kept in its place close to the side, and a good command of the 




reins is insured. If a double-reined bridle is employed, the middle finger 
separates the two snaffle reins, and the little one those attached to the curb, 
all being turned over the fore-finger, and firmly held by the thumb. In both 




cases the ends of the reins are turned over the left, or near side of the pony's 
shoulder. When it is intended to turn the horse to the left, it is only neces- 
sary to raise the thumb toward the chest of the rider ; and, on the contrary, 
when the desire is to turn him to the right, the little finger is turned down- 
ward and backward toward the fork. In many well-broken ponies the mere 
moving of the whole hand to the right or left is sufficient, which, by pressing 
the reins against the neck, indicates the wish of the rider, and is promptly 
responded to by the handy pony. This action, however, is objected to by 
some good horsemen, though, in our opinion, most erroneously, as it is capa- 
ble of being made highly effective in practice. 



THE SEAT 

Should always be square to the front, without either shoulder being in 
advance ; the loins moderately arched inward, without stiffness ; the elbows 
close to the side, but held easily ; the knees placed upon the padded part of 
the flap in front of the stirrup leathers ; toes turned very slightly outward, 
and the foot resting on the stirrup, the inside of which should be opposite 
the ball of the great toe, and the outside corresponding with the little toe. 
The heel should be well lowered, as far as possible beneath the level of the 
toe, which gives a firm seat. But the great point is to obtain a good grasp 



THE CONTROL OF THE HORSE. 115 

of the saddle by the knees, which should be always ready to lay hold like 
a vice, without however constantly tiring the muscles by such an effort. 
The left hand is now to be held very slightly above the pommel of the sad- 
dle, and the right easily by the side of it, with the whip held in a slanting 
position, as at page 107, in which, however, both hands are much too high 
above the withers. In order to show the effect of an incorrect mode of 
holding the reins, the rider has only to place his hand with the knuckles in 
a horizontal position, and the elbow is sure to be turned out in a most awk- 
ward manner. 

TITE CONTROL OF THE HORSE 

Is effected by the reins, heels, voice, and whip, variously used according to 
his disposition and temper. Some require only the most gentle usage, 
which, in fact, is almost always the most efficacious, especially by young 
people, for whom the horse and dog seem to have an especial affection, and 
to be always more ready to obey them than might be expected, when 
their want of strength to enforce their wishes is considered. The young 
rider will therefore generally find it to his own interest, as well as that of 
the noble animal he bestrides, to use his whip and heel as little as possible, 
and to effect his object solely by his voice and the gentlest pressure of the 
bit. In this way the most high-couraged horses are kept in order by young 
lads in the racing stables, and the amateur will do well to follow their exam- 
ple. It is astonishing how fond horses and dogs are of being talked to by 
their juvenile riders, and it is right to gratify their love of society by so 
doing on all occasions. The reins serve, as already explained, to turn to the 
right or left, or by drawing tight to stop the horse, and. on the contrary, by 
relaxing them to cause him to proceed, aided if necessary by the voice, 
heel, or whip. 'When it is desired that the right leg should lead in the can- 
ter or gallop, the left rein is pulled, and the left leg pressed against the 
flank, by which means the body of the pony is made to present the right side 
obliquely forward, and by consequence the right leg leads off. On the other 
hand, if it is wished to lead with the left leg, or to change from the 
right, the right rein is pulled, the right leg pressed to the side, and then 
the left shoulder looks forward and the left leg leads off. 

MANAGEMENT OF THE WALK. 

When it is wished to make the pony walk, he must be quieted down, by 
soothing him with the voice if he has been excited by the gallop or trot ; 
and then by sitting very quietly in the saddle, and loosing the reins as much 
as will allow the head to nod in unison with the action of the body and 
legs, the walk is generally at once fallen into, and there is no farther diffi- 
culty except to prevent a stumble. A tight rein is not desirable in this 
pace, since it prevents that liberty of action which is required, and leads to 
a short walk, or very often a jog-trot •, and yet there should be such a gen- 



110 HORSEMANSHIP. 

tie hold, or preparation far a hold rather, as will suffice to check the mouth 
in case of a mistake. This is a very difficult art to acquire, and is only 
iearned by long practice ; but as few ponies fall at this pace, great liberty 
may generally be allowed to their mouths. Beside this, little is necessary, 
more than to sit steadily, but not stiffly, in the saddle, and not to sway about 
more than is sufficient to avoid the appearance of having swallowed a poker. 

THE TROT AND CANTER 

Are effected by rather different methods, but both require a very steady 
hand, and a quiet treatment. In order to cause the pony to trot, the reins 
are taken rather short in the hand, and the mouth is held somewhat firmly. 
but taking great care not to jerk it. The animal is then slightly stimulated 
by the voice, and the body, if necessary, rises from the saddle, as in the trot, 
so as to indicate what is wanted. This seldom fails to effect the purpose, 
and the horse at once breaks into a trot ; or, if very irritable, he may be 
compelled to do so by laying hold of an ear and twisting it, to avoid which. 
he drops his head, and trots as a natural consequence. The canter is also 
an acquired pace, and for its due performance a curb-bridle is required. In 
order to make the pony begin this pace, the left rein is pulled, and the 




rider's left leg pressed against the side, by which the Horse's right leg is 
made to lead off, this being the most usual, and certainly the most comfort- 
able, " lead" for the rider. The hands must make a very gentle and steady 
pull on the curb-rein, and the body generally must be very quiet in the sad- 
die, whilst, at the same time, a very gentle stimulus is given by the voice, 
which must be repeated at short intervals, or the canter will be changed to 
a trot or walk, both of which are preferred to it by most ponies and horses. 



THE MANAGEMENT OF THE GALLOP. LEAPING. 



117 



Young riders should avoid cantering long upon one leg, as it leads to 
inflammation of the joints, and they should either change the lead, or alter 
the pace to a trot or walk. 

THE MANAGEMENT OF THE GALLOP 

Requires Lttle instruction, practice being the main agent in effecting a good 
seat during this pace. The seat is either close to the saddle, with the body 
inclining backwards (p. 109;, or standing in the stirrups, in which position 
the knees and calves only touch the saddle, and the body is bent forward 
over the withers (p. 108). It should be the endeavor of the rider, while 
he bends his shoulders forward, to throw Ms loins well back, so as to avoid 
straining the horse's fore-quarters, by bearing too much weight upon them. 
This is done by the hold of the knees on the saddle, and by keeping the 
feet back; also by rounding the loins backward, and thus throwing the 
centre of gravity as far as possible behind the stirrup leathers. The object 
of standing in the stirrups is to save the horse when at his full gallop, as in 
racing, or in hunting, when he is going over ploughed ground, or up hill. In 
either of these cases, this attitude allows the horse to exert himself without 
feeling the weight of the rider to impede his movements more than can be 
avoided. 




M* 




LEAPING 

Is only an extra exertion added to the ordinary spring of the gallop, the 
attitude being exactly the same. It is best learned by beginning with small 
ditches, which the rider is soon able to clear without difficulty. He may 
next try very low fences ; but the latter, being strong and firmly fixed, are 
dangerous to the rider, unless the pony is very sure of clearing them. A 



118 HORSEMANSHIP. 

leaping-bar, if procurable, should always be adopted in preference to either, 
as a fall over it is not attended with any bad consequences. The groom 
should place it at the lowest notch, and the pony then may be suffered to 
clear it at a moderate gallop; after which, if the young rider is able to sit 
pretty closely, lie may be indulged with a higher notch, and gradually it 
may be raised, until the limits of the pony's powers are reached. In riding 
ar a bar. the learner should lay hold of a snaffle-rein in each hand, taking 
care to keep them close together, by the right rein being held also in the 
left hand. The pony is then to be urged to a smart canter or hand-gallop, 
and held straight to the bar in this way, so that he is obliged to leap ; or, 
if disliking the act, being urged by the whip down the shoulder, or the 
spur, or the groom's voice and whip behind. Young riders, however, 
should never be put upon a bad or reluctant leaper, but should be taught 
upon one which is fond of the amusement. At the moment of rising into the 
air for the leap, the reins are relaxed, but should not be left quite loose, and 
the body of the rider inclines forward ; while the pony is in the air, the 
body becomes again upright, and as he descends it leans well back, until, 
after a high leap, it almost touches the croup. During this period, the 
reins should be suffered to remain nearly loose, the hand barely feeling the 
mouth ; but as the pony reaches the ground a stronger hold is taken, in 
order to guard against a mistake, which might require the aid of the rider 
to prevent a fall. It is not that he can keep the animal up, but that he 
checks him, and makes him exert himself in a double degree. There are 
various kinds of leaping ; as the flying leap, the standing leap, the leap in 
hand, etc, The flying leap is merely one taken at a fast pace, and when the 
rider can maintain a good seat in the gallop, it is the easiest of all to sit. 
The standing leap is effected from a state of quiescence, and is much more 
difficult to sit, because the horse rises and falls more suddenly and abruptly. 
Between the two is the slow or steady leap, which is only effected safely by 
the clever hunter or well-broken pony ; but when perfect it is almost as 
smooth as a rocking-horse. This is the mode in which the young rider 
should be taught to leap. The young rider, when he meets with a gate or 
other strong fence, which he knows is too much for the powers of his pony, 
at once gets off and leads him over by the rein; and when well taught, 
these little creatures will often tilt themselves over high timber, etc., in a 
marvellously clever manner, so that w r e have known them in this way obtain 
a good place in long and severe runs. If, therefore, our readers are allowed 
to partake in this exciting sport during their summer holidays, they should 
teach their ponies to leap in hand, or they will be sure to be thrown out. 

TREATMENT OF VICES 

The chief vices which are met with among ponies are — 1st. Obsti- 
nate stopping; 2d. Stumbling from carelessness; 3d. Rearing; 4th. Kick- 
ing ; 5th. Shying ; and 6th. Running away. 

Obstinate stopping, which in its worst forms is called " jibbing," is a very 






TREATMENT OF VICES. 



119 



troublesome vice, and even in the saddle is sometimes attended with danger, 
while in driving it is so to a dreadful degree. 

The rider should never attempt to force his pony forward with the whip 
or spur, which only aggravates the bad-tempered brute ; but should patiently 
sit quiet in the saddle, and keep his temper, until the pony chooses to move 
forward again. In this way, sometimes, very vicious animals are cured, 
when they find that their stable is not the sooner reached by their device ; 
on the other hand, if the whip is used, the pony is very apt to lie down, 
and roll his rider in the dirt, or even sometimes to bolt into a river, or pond, 




and leave him in danger of his life. Our young friends will therefore 
remember our advice when, being mounted upon an obstinate pony, and 
having lost their tempers, they have proceeded to use their whips, and are 
bemired or half drowned in consequence. 

Stumbling is more a defect of conformation than a vice; but, neverthe- 
less, it greatly depends upon a want of spirit to keep up a steady action of 
the fore legs. It often happens that a pony trots along for a mile or two 
safely enough ; but after going that distance he becomes lazy and careless, 
and trips with one foot and then with the other, a sure prelude to such a fall 
as the following, which would be a very bad one (page 120), and sufficient to 
cut both knees to the bone, and to cause serious damage to the rider. The 
only way to avoid such accidents is to keep the pony at a steady pace, fast 
enough to keep him alive, but not enough so as to tire him. Loose stones and 
broken ground should be avoided, and a careful hold should be kept upon 
the mouth, without being so tight as to gag it. "When a stumble actually 
takes place, the body should be well thrown back and the mouth forcibly 
jerked, so as to make the pony exert himself to keep his legs. An unsafe 



130 



HOItSKMANSIIir. 



animal of this kind is, however, wholly unfit for young riders, and they 
should never be allowed to ride one. 




Bearing is a very dangerous vice, and not very common among ponies 
after they are once broken in. If the rider should, however, be placed 
upon a rearer, he should he careful to avoid hanging upon the bit 
when he rises in the air, but on the contrary should loose the reins en- 
tirely, and clasp the neck if the pony should rise very high in the air. The 




accompanying sketch shows this vice in a very trifling degree, and in such 
a case the seat thus represented is sufficiently forward to prevent accidents. 






TREATMENT OF VICES. 121 

The rider will, however, observe that the reins are quite loose. It often 
happens that this vice is produced by too tight and severe a curb in a tender 
mouth, and that upon changing the bit, or letting out the curb-chain, the ten- 
dency to rise is entirely gone. 'Whenever, therefore, the young rider finds 
his pony inclined to rear, let him look well to his bit, and at once drop the 
curb rein, if he has one. If, however, he has only a snaffle, he may rest 
assured that it is a regular habit, and he can make up his mind either to 
battle with it or to change his pony. 

Kicking is much more common among ponies than rearing, and very many 
of these little animals are given to practise it. It is perhaps partly owing 
to the teasing of their young masters that it is so common; but whatever 
the cause, there can be no doubt that it is too prevalent among them. 
Sometimes it exists as a regular attempt to unhorse the rider, which is a 




very troublesome habit, and one very difficult to break, because it so often 
succeeds that the pony is tempted to try again. When this vice is met 
with, the rider should do all in his power to keep his pony's head up, by jerk- 
ing the bit, and at the same time he should sit well back, with his feet well 
forward. "When the habit is a very bad one, a cloth or coat may be rolled 
up and strapped in front of the saddle, by which the rider is aided in keep- 
ing his seat ; but unless the trick is very violently carried out, he had better 
trust to his knees in holding on. When kicking is only the result of high 
spirits and " freshness.'' the best remedy is a smart gallop, which soon stops 
all these pranks, and makes the most riotous animal quiet. 

Shying is also very common among ponies, and in them is often the result 
of cunning, which leads them to pretend a greater degree of shyness than 
they really possess. The best mode of treatment is to take as little notice 
6 



122 



HORSEMANSHIP. 



as possible of the shying, but carefully to make the pony pass the object at 
winch he is looking, without regarding how this is effected. The whip should 
seldom be used at all, and never after the object is passed. 

7, or Running Away : is often the result of want of exercise, but 
sometimes it is a systematic vice, leading to such scenes as the one here 
represented. A powerful bit and a steady seat, with good hands, are the best 
means of grappling with this habit, which is sometimes a very dangerous 
one. If the pony really runs away, the rider should not pull dead at his 
mouth, but should relax his hold for a short time, and then take a sharp 
pull, which is often effectual. A good gallop until he is tired will often cure 
a runaway for the rest of his life. There are a variety of bits intended ex- 
pressly to counteract this vice ; but nothing is perfectly effectual where there 
is a determination to run away. A nose-band has lately been invented for 
the purpose, which answers very well. It consists of a long nose-band 
which crosses behind the jaw and then hooks on to the bit, in the same 
way as the ordinary curb-chain. "When the rein is pulled hard, this nose- 
band is drawn tight round the jaw, by which the mouth is closed, and the 
port is pressed strongly against the roof of the mouth, causing a great degree 
of pain, sufficient to stop most horses. This powerful remedy, which has 
been named the Bucephalus nose-band, should not lightly be used; but in 
the case of a runaway horse, or pony, it is a really efficacious one. A similar 
arrangement, known as the Mexican bit, is sometimes used, and is even 
better than the one just mentioned. 




DRIVING. 



123 



DRIVING. 




The usual carriage driven with one horse, — and our young readers should 
have some experience before they attempt a pair, — is the buggy, or York 
wagon. In addition to this there are phaetons, gig-phaetons, rockaways, and 
others, but all have the same harness, and are managed in the same way, so 
that the directions for one will answer for all the rest. 

The horse is attached to a buggy by means of a set of harness. By an 
examination of the engravings, with the letters of reference attached, our 
readers will learn the names of the component parts of this, and its adjust- 
ment. (See page 124,) 

They will see that the harness is divided into, 1st, the driving or guiding 
part; 2d, the drawing part; and 3d, that for holding up the shafts. The 
driving part comprises the bridle and reins. The bridle is made up of a front 
piece (U), a head-piece (Y), two cheek-pieces and winkers (P and Q), a 
nose-band (S), and a throat-lash (R). The cheek-pieces are buckled to the 
bit, which is generally a strong curb, by means of leather loops, called 
billets, as also are the driving-reins (TT), and the bearing-rein, which is at- 
tached to a separate bit, called the bridoon (a plain snaffle), and then is 
hooked to the pad-hook. This is now very generally dispensed with, but 
for young drivers it is often desirable, when they have not strength to check 
the fall of a horse. The drawing parts consist of a padded oval ring fitted to 
the shoulders, and called the collar (A), sometimes replaced by a padded strap 
across the chest, called the breast-strap (b, Fig. 2). On the collar are fastened 
two iron bars called hames (C), by means of a strap at the top and bottom 



124 



HORSEMANSHIP. 



(PTVi and these hamea have a ring in the upper part for the reins to pass 
through, called the haino teret (E), and nearer the lower part, a strong arm 




of iron, covered with a coating of brass, silver, or leather, which receives in 
its eye the tug of the trace (F). The trace (G) is a long and strong strap of 





Fig. 1. 



Fig. 2. 



double leather, stitched, which runs from the collar to the drawing bar, and 
may be lengthened or shortened by a buckle. The supporting and backing 






DRIVING. 125 

part consists of the pad or saddle (II), somewhat similar in principle to the 
riding saddle, but much narrower and lighter. This has two rings for 
the reins, called the terets (I), and a hook (J), for the bearing rein, all at 
the top. It is fastened to the horse by a belly-band (K), and at tho 
back of it there is an eye for the crupper, which is a leather strap from it to 
the tail, round the root of which it passes, and thus holds the pad from 
pressing forward. Through the middle of the pad passes a strong leather 
strap, called the back-band (L), which is attached to a buckle and strong 
loop on each side, called the shaft-tug (M), by which the shaft is supported 
and also kept back from pressing upon the horse's quarters, in which latter 
office it is sometimes assisted by a leather strap passing round these parts, 
and buckled on each side, either to the shaft or to its tug, and called the 
breeching (N) ; a kicking-strap is sometimes substituted for the common 
breeching, or added to it, as shown at o (Fig. 1). 

PUTTING TO. 
Before driving, it is necessary that the horse or pony should be "put to," 
which is effected as follows: 1st, slip the shafts through the tugs, or, if there 
are hooks, -drop them down into them; 2d, put the traces on to the drawing- 
bar, either hooking them on, or else slipping them on to the eyes, and being 
careful to place the leather stops in these to prevent the trace coming off; 
3d, buckle the belly-band sufficiently tight ; and 4th, buckle the kicking- 
strap, or breeching, if either is used. After this, the reins are taken from 
the terets, where they were previously placed, and the horse is ready. 

DIRECTIONS FOR DRIVING. 

In driving, the reins are held differently from the mode already described 
as used in riding, the fore-finger being first placed between them, and then both 




the reins are grasped by all the other fingers, and the near side rein is also 
held firmly against the fore-finger by means of the thumb. In this way, 
on an emergency, the near or left rein may be pulled by itself, by holding it 
firmly with the thumb, and suffering the other, or off rein, to slip through 
the fingers, or vice versa. 

Whilst turning, or when driving a high-couraged horse, and in critical situ- 



V2G HORSEMANSHIP. 

ations generally, the right liand must be at all times called to the assistance 
of the left; thus, the Feins being grasped as before stated, you pass the 
second and third lingers between them, and loosening your hold on the off 
rein a little, let the right hand have complete command of its guidance, still, 
however, firmly holding both reins in your left ; this position gives you great 
power over your horse. 

STARTING. 

Holding your reins with both hands; start your horse cither by your voice 
or by the reins, gently feeling his mouth, but neither pulling at it nor jerk- 
ing the reins. Many high-ccuraged horses have been made barkers by the 
stupidity of a driver. If a young horse's mouth is hurt by the driver check- 
ing him every time he starts, he will be sure to incur some vice ; the habit 
of rearing, or of balking, will most probably be the result. The learner may 
say. " Supposing, however, he refuses to start, what then is to be done?"' 
TTe reply, have patience ; let the groom lead him off, caress him, speak 
quietly, and encourage him to proceed, and if he presses on one side, as if 
he wanted to go round, turn him round, if there be room, and as soon 
as he has his head the right way, give him his liberty, and by the voice 
or whip urge him to proceed. Much must here be left to the judgment; a 
touch with the whip in such circumstances would make some horses jib, 
while it would immediately start others; some it would be advisable to urge 
only with the voice, and to have a person to push the buggy on, so that the 
collar should scarcely touch the shoulder in starting. Supposing there is not 
room for the horse to turn, and he persist in his attempt to do so, we have 
always found it best in such a case to desire the groom to let his head alone, 
and to go to the side toward which the horse is inclined to turn, and then 
push against the extreme end of the shaft ; if he does this, speaking quietly 
to him all the time, forty-nine horses out of fifty, that are not irreclaimable 
balkers, will after a short struggle proceed. The sooner you get rid of a 
confirmed jibber the better" no quality such a brute can possess would 
repay you for the trouble the vice occasions ; which is besides always a dan- 
gerous one. 

THE EOAD. 

Having started your horse, keep your eyes open, looking well before you, 
not merely for the purpose of avoiding other carriages, but looking up the 
road, and on each side of it, so as to notice if there be any impediment to 
your horse's progress ; any loose stones which he might tread upon, and 
thereby be thrown down : any sudden risings or fallings in the road, or any 
object which might frighten him. Always keep your horse well in hand, 
that is, feel his mouth ; if you do not you are never prepared for emer- 
gencies : if he stumbles, you cannot help Mm to recover his legs ; if he 
starts, you cannot check him. But in keeping him in hand, as it is called, 
you may still fall into error, for if the horse be very light in the mouth there 



DRIVING. 127 

is a probability that an inexperienced person may so check him, as not only 
to impede his progress, but to put him out of temper ; and as nothing is 
more difficult for a novice tomanapre than a very light-mouthed horse, when 
he once takes it in his head to have his own way, you must be careful 
merely to feel his mouth so as to have the reins at command, but still not 
sufficiently tight to check him. This is called driving with a light hand, and 
indeed is the perfection of driving, when it has become so habitual as to 
have assumed the character of " a style." Young drivers, in attempting this, 
will frequently allow their horses to run from one side of the road to the other ; 
or, if their peregrinations do not embrace the whole of the road, they allow 
their horse (in fact make him) to sidle about in such a manner, that if they 
were to look at the track of their wheels, they would be astonished at what 
they had been doing. This must be avoided ; as nothing is so ungraceful 
as to see a carriage yawing from side to side. A little thought will, more- 
over, convince you how much unnecessary ground you have gone over by 
tins practice. Holding in hand sometimes produces another bad practice, 
particularly if your horse's mouth is not delicate ; it gets him into the habit 
of hanging in your arms, and boring continually upon the bit, until his mouth 
becomes so callous, that if he stumbles he must come down, unless you can 
hold him up by main strength — a feat only to be achieved by a young Her- 
cules. This may be avoided sometimes by keeping the bit moving in his 
mouth, but more frequently by not unnecessarily pulling at the rein ; many 
a horse has become an arrant bore from tins practice. If the reins are held 
with both hands, as before directed, you will have much more command of 
them, and a little attention will prevent these inconveniences. 

But the tyro may perhaps say, " But if my horse will hang in my arms, 
what am I to do then?'' The best plan to adopt is the following. "We will 
premise, that whenever your horse has a vice or a fault, you should consider 
what originated it; and this being discovered, a remedy will very frequently 
be found. In the case in question, the fault is often produced by bad driv- 
ing, and often from the horse never having been properly bitted ; in either 
case the advice we are about to give will generally be useful, particularly 
if the horse be properly driven when he is put in harness. When the 
horse is in his stable, let him, for three or four hours a day, stand with his 
head fastened to the pillar reins, and with a colt bit in his mouth ; with this 
he will play, by continually rolling it about in his mouth, and straining on 
the reins ; he thus becomes familiarized to the bit, and regards it, if we may 
so say, as a source of amusement rather than of torture. From being thus 
accustomed to the bit when he is not in motion, and when boring on it 
would become painful, he forgets his former habit, and will bear the bit 
lightly in his mouth when at work This, process is technically termed bit- 
ing him, and if persevered in, and the horse be properly driven, the evil will 
most probably be remedied thereby. Sometimes, changing the bit will have 
a good effect; if he has been used to a port bit, try a snaffle ; if he be hard 
mouthed, and an ordinary snaffle is not of sufficient power, a ring snaffle 



1:23 HORSEMANSHIP. 

will generally be effective. When a horse bores to ouo side of the road, let 
US Strongly advise the young driver never to adopt that unphilosophical 
and senseless plan of whipping him on the neck upon the side to winch ho 
is boring*. We grant that the lash drives him over for the moment, 
that is, if he will bear whipping, but this, continually repeated, lias a bad 
effect on both horse ami driver. It either irritates or dispirits the horse, 
and fatigues both parties; and every one knows that when flogging once 
commences, a man very soon loses his temper, and from a coachman he is 
apt to forget hnnseif, and become a brute. AVhipping will not remedy the 
evil; the horse gets more and more weary, and even if he does not become 
restive, he will soon become knocked up. If the plans just referred to will 
not cure him; or rather, if he be incurable, part with him, for whoever 
keeps a horse for comfort and pleasure, will find his object defeated by 
driving such an animal. Such horses may prove useful in business from 
some good qualities they may possess; but a horse driven for pleasure 
should never have a vice that will compel his master to work as hard, as a 
blacksmith. We have been speaking of a horse working alone in a buggy 
or rockaway. TThen working in double harness, you can prevent much of 
the inconvenience by having a check-rein fastened to the other horse's 
teret ; the same remedy holds, in this case, to a horse that is always boring 
to one side of a road, when working in double harness. Observation will, 
however, show you that in the one case the cheek-rein had better be fixed 
to the trace, in the other to the teret. A few words may here be said as to 
the cause of a horse's boring to one side. It is frequently the result of 
weakness, and many a horse will do it as he gets weary, who will not when 
he starts. Sometimes the mouth is harder upon one side than the other, 
which will make him flinch from the softer side ; a light hand will tend to 
remedy this ; but if he be driven with a port bit, placing the rein which is 
on the soft side of the mouth right up to the cheek, and the other a bar or 
two below, will probably prevent any unpleasantness or any danger, partic- 
ularly if the horse be driven with care. But such a horse is by no means to 
be desired; if he should stumble, or if, from any circumstance, it is necessary 
to pull him up sharply, an inexperienced hand may make him jump to one side 
of the road by not having presence of mind to recollect his fault, and forget- 
ting to pull strongest upon the hard side of the mouth. An experienced 
hand will feel, as it were intuitively, the exact force which each side of the 
mouth will bear. 

DIFFICULT SITUATIONS FOR YOUNG DRIVERS. 

Y^e will now proceed to notice what may be accurately classed under the 
above denomination. 

Tusking the bit and running av:ay. — Some ill-tempered horses will become 
violent upon being in any manner put out of their way — such r for instance, 
as being suddenly stopped two or three times within a short distance, or 
receiving a sudden cut with the whip ; but instead of exhibiting this vio- 



DIFFICULT SITUATIONS FOR YOUNG DRIVERS. 120 

lenee by rearing or kicking, thly will seize the bit in their mouths, close 
against the tusk, and run violently to one side of the road, as if with the 
intention of landing 3-ou in a ditch, or giving you a resting-place in a shop 
window. Your best mode is to stop them at once by a quiet pull, speaking 
softly, as if nothing were the matter; and then coax them into good tem- 
' per until you get home, when we will presently explain to you how to pre- 
vent the like again. If this cannot be done, give them the head for a mo- 
ment (a short one it must be), and after bestowing a violent switch across 
the ears, snatch the reins suddenly toward the side to which the horse is 
boring, which will probably, from the surprise, disengage the bit, and ena- 
ble you almost simultaneously either to pull him up, or draw him away from 
the danger. You will observe we have said on the side to which he is pres- 
sing, for it would be all but impossible to draw him to the other ; for such 
a brute always seizes the bit by the branch or side which is next to tho 
place he is running to, knowing, or rather thinking, you will pull the other 
rein, in which case the side of the face would aid him in resisting your 
efforts. The remedy for this is a ring bit, for it has no branches for the 
horse to get hold of, and if he merely seizes that part of the bit which is in 
his mouth, a sudden jerk will instantly disengage it, that is, if it be done with 
sufficient decision ; but our experience teaches us, that in ninety-nine cases 
out of a hundred the horse will not attempt this ; he misses the branches, 
and is disappointed and abashed at not being able to play the old trick. 

Frequently, however, a horse tusks the bit, as it is called, with the view 
of bolting ; it you cannot disengage the bit in the way directed, you have 
only to stop him as quickly as you can. Recollect, however, that a contin- 
ual dead pull will never stop a runaway horse, unless indeed you have the 
strength of Hercules : his mouth soon becomes callous to the action of the 
sharpest bit. Nor is it proper to keep jerking a horse under such circum- 
stances, as that would rather urge him to increase his speed. The ordinary 
mode is to take the reins short in your hands, and then, by a sudden, steady 
movement of the body backward, exerting at the same time all the strength 
of the arms, endeavor to pull him up ; this, repeated two or three times, 
will generally be effectual. Suppose it not to succeed, adopt the following 
plan, by which we have stopped many a determined bolter who had bid 
defiance to more than one reputed whip. Cross the reins in your hands, 
that is, place the right rein in the left hand, the left in the right hand, take 
them very short, and then suddenly put all your strength to them with a 
sudden jerk, but continue the pressure, violently sawing them at the same 
time ; if this will not bring the horse to his haunches at the first attempt, 
let him partially have his head — that is, sufficiently slacken your pull to 
give his mouth time to recover its feeling — and then repeat the effort. TTe 
never knew a horse that we could not stop by this method, which, though 
not very graceful, is very effective. 

* Stumbling and Slipping. — If your horse be kept well in hand, you will 
generally be able to keep him from absolutely coming down. You will 



130 HORSEMANSHIP. 

naturally put more force to your pull upon his making the stumble, and this 
jerk, if succeeded by a strong, continuous aid, generally keeps him on his 
legs ; a smart stroke with the whip should follow, to remind him that his 
carelessness is not to be repeated. A horse that is apt to stumble, or even 
one that from his form is likely to stumble, should not only always be 
kept well in hand, but also be kept alive, by now and then being reminded, 
without actually punishing him, that his driver has a whip in his hand. A 
horse with his head set too forward, that is, low in the withers, is almost 
sure to come down sooner or later, particularly if his fore legs stand at all 
under him, as it is technically termed, that is, slanting a little inward. 
Stumbling, however, be it remembered, is totaUy distinct from slipping; the 
stone pavement will give the tyro plenty of opportunity to perceive the dif- 
ference. If a horse slips, a sudden jerk will probably throw him down ; 
in such a case the driver must aid the horse by a strong, steady hold, 
letting him, as it were, lean on the bit to help himself to stand. It requires 
some nerve thus to aid the horse, without being induced to jerk him by the 
suddenness of the slip. 

Jibbing, or Balking. — Demosthenes, on being asked what was the soul of 
oratory, answered, "Action, action, action !" If we are asked what is the best 
mode to adopt with a jibber, we should say, Patience, patience, patience ! 
This, however, must be qualified by the temper of the horse. Some balkers 
(but very few) may be started by sudden and severe whipping; ninety-nine 
times out of a hundred it will render a jibber restive, mischievous, or obsti- 
nate. Experience only can dictate the management of such animals. Some 
will start after waiting for a short time, having their head free ; coaxing is 
generally the best means, and, as before said, have patience, and do not be in 
too great a hurry to start. Some may be started by being turned round, and 
others by being backed for a short distance. Many think it a good plan to 
punish a jibber when he is once started; our experience proves the contrary, 
for, depend upon it, he will recollect this next time, and will not fail further 
to exercise your patience, for fear of the flogging. 

Kicking — An experienced eye can generally tell if a horse is likely to 
kick, and also when he is about to kick. "We, however, always drive with 
a kicking-strap, and would recommend the practice. When a horse attempts 
to kick, you must hold him well in hand, and lay the whip well into him 
about the ears, rating him at the same time with a loud voice ; this plan we 
have generally found effective. We would, however, recommend the young 
driver first to try the rating without the whipping; the voice frequently has a 
wonderful effect upon a horse. Be sure, however, to keep him well in hand. 

Bearing. — Little can be done in harness with a determined rearer. When 
he tries to rear, if you have room give him a half turn, this will make him 
move his hind legs, and will consequently bring him down ; you will find a 
series of turns punish and surprise him more than any thing else. When 
you have once got him on the move, with his head the right way, you can 
punish him with the whip, if he is one that you are sure you can manage ; 



DIFFICULT SITUATIONS FOR YOUNG DRIVERS. 



131 



if not, you had better leave veil alone. With respect to rearing in double 
harness, we will here observe, the best way to act is to push the other horse 
forward, and soothe the restive one, until you have fairly got him on ; you 
can then punish or not, according to your judgment, but not without refer- 
ence to your ability to manage the horses. 

Shying. — Before a horse starts at any thing on the side of, or lying 
on the road, he usually gives some notice of his intention, by cocking 
his ears, and bending his head toward the object. As soon as the driver 
perceives these signs of uneasiness, he should be upon his guard to prevent 
a sudden turn round, or flying to one side, which would evidently be dan- 
gerous; and not only on this account should he be attentive, but because 
each time the horse violently shies, the habit is in progress of being con- 
firmed. As soon, therefore, as a horse accustomed to shy gives notice of 
uneasiness, he should be coaxed up to the object of his terror, so that 
he may perceive its harmlessness; let him deliberately stand and view it, 
and if he cannot bo got to it, let it, if possible, be brought to him, and then 
replaced in its former position ; thus let him be induced to go up to it by 
care and kindness before it is passed, and you will generally find that a repe- 
tition of this practice will greatly improve, if it do not cure him; but by 
no means flog or force him up to it — let him take his time. We are now, of 
course, speaking of a horse whose sight is perfect. Some horses shy from 
having an imperfect vision; in fact, because they are going blind, and the 
sight is affected; and we would, therefore, advise a young driver to have 
his horse's eyes examined (if he is unable to examine them himself), when- 
ever this shying is violent after a few lessons of the nature before detailed. 
We do not mean to say that there are not horses so timid that they cannot 
be broken of this bad practice ; but we do say that most horses may be, 
if taken in time, and also that nine out of ten of these animals owe their vice 
to bad breaking, or bad drivers. 




132 



ANGLING. 



ANGLING. 





The art of the angler is varied by circumstances. To be successful, it 
must be based on a knowledge of the habits of fish — different fishes having 
different tastes, and even the same kind of fishes differing in habits, when 
placed in different localities. It is our intention to give general information 
on the subject, through which a smart boy, by using his eyes and judgment, 
may become an accomplished angler. 

The implements of the angler are as follows : 

THE ROD. 




For small fish, — chubs, dace, roach, minnows, sunfish, and small white 
perch, — a black alder or willow rod, about eight feet in length, will answer ; 
but for catching larger fish, a carefully made rod is necessary. Besides, it 
is more comfortable to have a nice rod. It can be had at the shops where 
they sell fishing-tackle, in great variety of shape and price. One with four 
joints or pieces — the butt and two succeeding pieces of ash, and the last 



THE KEEL. THE LINE. THE HOOK. 



133 



joint, or tip, of lancewood — will be the best for ordinary purposes. It 
should have two tips, oue short and one long. The wood should be straight- 
grained, and each joint should have eyes, through which the line will run 
easily- A rod of cane, without joints, is exceedingly good, if it can be kept 
near the fishing-ground, as it is nut very portable. Whatever the material, 
the rod should be straight, tapering from butt to point, tight in the joints, 
and have a good spring to it. 

THE REEL. 

Very good fish have been caught 
without the reel; but that is a 
very useful thing, nevertheless, 
allowing you to let a large fish 
run out a deal of line, and let- 
ting you wind it up at your 
pleasure, thus affording him play, 
and making his capture more cer- 
tain. Without it, you would lose 
many a large fish, who would snap 

your taut, short line. The reel is generally made of brass, but sometimes 
of German silver, and may be either plain cr multiplying. The latter is 
best, but, being complex, is liable to get out of order. The plain imported 
reel is very good ; but if you are able to obtain a multiplying reel, get an 
American one, as those made in England are very apt to be fitted with 
brass internal wheels, the cogs of which soon give way. A reel that will 
hold about fifty yards of line is enough for a boy's purpose. 




THE LINE. 

Different lines are required for different fish, For catching shiners, a 
stout piece of homespun thread will answer, and with this, and a No. 
11 hook, you can capture a half-pound sunfish, or perch, if need be. Sea- 
grass is also a good material for a short line of, say, twenty feet. For your 
main line, a plaited silk, or well-twisted hemp, is best, measuring fifty 
yards. It should be boiled in linseed oil before being used, which, will add 
to its durability, and render it less liable to kink. To catch large pike or 
muskelunjeh, where you troll for them, you want a stout cotton or hemp 
ine. 



THE HOOK. 

Your hook has to be proportioned to the kind of fish you catch, and will 
vary from the little fly hook, No. 12, up to the salmon, No. 0, which is large 
enough for any fishing a boy will ever get. As to the style, the Limerick 
(A B) is decidedly our favorite ; although, for some fishing, the Kirby (C) 
is excellent. The Limerick has a curve extending from the shank to the 



134 



LING. 



bottom of the bend, which thence turns up at an angle ; while the Kirby 
rises up nearly straight, and its barb has a slight turn outwards. 




The sizes of both kinds of hooks are the same. 

There is also a pattern called the Virginia hook, which is very popular 
with Southern fishermen. It is shaped like the Kirby. with a Limerick 
barb, and is longer in the shank than either. 

After getting the kind of hook to suit your fancy, test each individual 
hook, and see that it has a good temper, and that the point is sharp and 
perfect. 

SINKERS, OR DIPSIES. 

These are of various sizes, from a small shot, half split, and then closed 
on the line, to a heavy lead, of a pound or more, used in sea-fishing. A 
swivel sinker is best, as it prevents the line from being entangled, and, if 
you troll, aids in spinning the bait. 

SWIVELS. 

These are very necessary. They are generally made of blued steel, or 
brass, and should be placed at various parts of the line, one being within a 
foot or eighteen inches of the bait. 

FLOATS. 

Floats are usually made of corks or quills — 
sometimes cf red cedar or w r hite pine, and are 
either egg-shaped, or made like two long, nar- 
row cones, joined at their bases. For small fish, 
the quill-float is preferable ; and for very large 
fish, the red cedar, hollowed out. 

LEADERS. 

The leaders, to which the hooks are attached, 
are made either of twisted horse-hair, sea-grass, 
or silk- worm gut — the latter being the most ele- 
gant material, almost imperceptible in water, 
and necessary in taking shy fish. 

NETS. 

The only two nets are the landing and bait. Their uses are expressed in 
their names. The landing-net is a purse-like net, with a three-eighths of an 




GAFF-HOOK. THE CLEARING-RING. BAITS. 135 

inch mesh, and is made about sixteen inches in diameter and two feet in 
length, set on a stout brass wire ring, and attached to a light but strong 




hickory handle, five feet long. The bait-net is similar, but somewhat 
smaller, and has a quarter of an inch mesh. 

GAFF-HOOK. 

This is a bent hook, about four inches long, with a six-feet handle, by 
which you get a purchase in the gills of a big fish, and so land him. 

THE CLEARING-RING. 

This is a ring weighing from a quarter of a pound to six ounces, which is 
tied to a stout cord, and when the line is caught in some obstacle under 
water, is placed around the fine, and sent down to clear the way. 

BAITS. 

The ordinary bait in common fishing is the angle-worm, as it is called, 
which may be dug up in any loamy soil, especially in damp situations, or 
found by rolling over logs, or lifting plank that have lain for some time on 
the ground. There are other species of worms sometimes used, such as the 
brandling, which you will find about old dung-heaps, and the marah-zcona, 
which has a broader, flatter tail than the angle-worm. 

The white grub-worm, which will be found under old decayed logs, 
stumps, and in freshly-ploughed ground, is much approved by some, but we 
never found it of much use. 

The grasshopper, used without a sinker, so as to float on the surface, is a 
killing bait for trout, and the large sunfish, red-eyes, or yellow perch. Sun- 
fish will rise readily, too, at the common black cricket, if it be left floating 
on the surface. 

Minnows, gudgeons, shiners, and dace are all used as bait, and chub for 
large fish. They must be put on alive. 

In baiting with a minnow, do not put the hook through the back, fin, or 
body, as recommended by most writers. Your bait will die sooner, indeed, 
will inevitably die. By baiting in the proper manner, your bait will five as 
long as wanted, and if you do not fancy him, may be released carefully, and 
_sent about his business, none the worse for it. A writer on this subject 
says: 



130 ANGLING. 

"Your game-fish takes his prey by swallowing it head foremost, not liking 
the prickles of the dorsal fin" to stick in his belly. So I insert my hook 
carefully in the gill-cover of my bait, which the little fellow hardly feels, 
and let him play about, until Mr. Gristes, Mr. Lucioperca, or Mr; Salmo call 
for his breakfast." 

Shad-roe is an excellent bait in its season for striped bass, or rock -fish, 
trout, and white perch. 

In salt or brackish water, the soft or shedder crab, the sliriinp, the soft 
and hard clam, are much used. 

Dough, or dough and cheese, mixed with cotton, is capital for many 
ground-fish. 

A frog, either whole or in parts, is capital for pike, pickerel, or pike-perch, 
in some localities. 

Spoon-bait consists of the bowl of a spoon, silvered on the convex, and 
painted red on the concave side, with one or two hooks fastened at the top 
end, and set on the line. Drawn quietly through the water, the black bass 
and pickerel dart at it readily. 

In addition to these, there is the artificial fly, the most elegant of all 
baits for trout and salmon, and a great many others, which a smart boy will 
find in the woods and about the streams, in the shape of flies and beetles. 
The three main baits are, however, artificial flies, earth-worms, and small 
fish. In getting the latter, remember that small fish with stiff prickly 
back-fins, such as sticklebacks and sunfish, are of little use, no large fish 
liking to have his throat lacerated with the sharp spines. Even that vora- 
cious fellow, the pike, will hardly venture on a young sunfish, however 
hungry he may be. 

MISCELLANEOUS MATTERS. 

Besides the foregoing, you will want a disgorger, to aid you in getting out 
the hook when swallowed very far ; and you should have with you always 
a little leather case, containing, besides your extra hooks, etc., a pair of 
small pliers, scissors, some shoemaker's wax in a piece of soft leather, and 
a piece of stout cord, to be waxed and wrapped around your rod, in case it 
should break, and you would need to splice it. A fish-basket, and conve- 
niences of that sort, should be provided. 

GENERAL DIRECTIONS. 

Look out for wind and weather.. The south wind, and after that the west, 
is considered the best by all experienced anglers, from Walton down, and a 
cloudy, though not a cold day, is set down as favorable. Fish are whimsi- 
cal, however, or it may be have fits of hunger, for we have had fine fishing 
on a cold day, with an east wind; and have filled our basket when the sun 
was beaming down scorchingly and not a cloud in the sky. The best time 
of day is early in the morning, and late in the afternoon. 

Be cautious. Fish are shy. Never show yourself near where the fish 



THE SALMON. 137 

lie, if you can help it. Fish, like the Irishman's gun, was made to shoot 
round a corner. Many a big trout, or huge black bass, has been captured 
while he lay hidden under an overhanging bank, by the skilful angler drop- 
ping or casting his bait gently in his vicinity. Never let your shadow fall 
in the water, and if you cannot fish with your face to the sun, take shelter 
behind a tree, bush, or rock. 

Have on good boots and woollen stockings, the former to keep out the 
water, and the latter, in case it does get in, to let it do you as little mischief 
as possible. Have plenty of spare hooks and leaders, with an extra float, 
sinker, and swivel, to make up any unexpected loss, and always be provided 
with an abundance of bait. 

With these remarks, we come to the various kinds of fish to be met with 
in different parts of the United States. 

THE SALMON. 

Tliis. the noblest of all fish, is to be found in but a few places in this 
country. It is confined to the States of Maine, California, and Oregon, and 
some of the "Western lakes. Occasionally a few make their way up the 







^B. 



-' -:'}^<D 



Hudson. The time of taking them is from April to July, and they are 
treated, like the trout, either to the fly, worms, or minnows. You want a 
heavy rod, with a very large reel, and from three to six hundred feet of line. 
A swivel sinker and cedar float are to be used, when you fish with live bait, 
and your hook is a No. 0, 1, 2, or 3. Limerick, with a strong leader of twisted 
gut, from three to six feet in length. For fly-fishing, you must use a swivel 
instead of a swivel sinker, and, of course, no float. 

For worm-fishing, put on your worm head first, and leave about a half 
inch of the tail to wriggle ; throw it gently in the current, draw it up 
quietly after it has floated down, keeping the bait continually in motion. 
Keep a tight line when he bites, but do not strike too soon. Allow him to 
gorge, then strike suddenly and sharply. If the bite should be only a sud- 



138 ANGLING. 

den jerk, pay no attention to it — it is merely a nibble. Wait patiently, and 
he will eall again. If he does, look sharp. Play him gently but firmly. 
Let him have line enough as he goes from you, but as he returns reel up. 
Keep him clear of stumps and rocks ; be patient, and as cool as you can. 
At length he will exhaust himself. Draw him gently to shore, put the hook 
of your gaff in his gills, and land him. 

THE LAKE TROUT. 

This is found in a few lakes in the Middle and Northern States, and dif- 
fers from the Mackinaw trout, with which it is often confounded. It is 
blackish, with many gray spots, body comparatively short ; its back-fin has 
a sinuous margin, and its length is two to four feet. It is taken in the same 
way as 

THE MACKIXAVv' TROUT* 

This fish is dark-gray above, of a light ash-gray, or cream-color, on chin, 
throat, and belly ; the back and sides having many lighter gray, brown, or 
dirty white spots, which do not show themselves on the fins, as in the lake 



A 




BEOOK TROUT. 



trout. The breast and belly-fins are yellowish; teeth, gums, and mouth 
of a purplish tinge ; length two to five feet. It has a finer flavor than the 
lake trout. 

For this fish you want a heavy rod, and spoon-bait or revolver. You 
troll for him, or you can use the large minnow. Tour line must be stout. 
You manage your fish as in taking any other salmon — for a member of the 
salmon family he is, and a fine one at that. 

COMMON BROOK TROUT. 
This fish is too well known to need description. A variety is the 

BLACK TROUT, 

"Which seems to be the same fish, modified by its dwelling-place, which is in 
muddy streams and ponds principally. Then, there is the 



HULBO TROUT. 139 



HULBO TROUT, 

With a forked tail, dusky back, yellowish belly fin, all the other lines palish 
purple, and grows from two to four feet long. It is to be taken after the 
fashion of the lake trout. 

The best time for taking the common trout is from April to August, or, if 
it be mild weather, as early as March. You may capture this fish in one of 
three ways : — 

T>>p- Angling. — This is done with an artificial or natural fly, grasshopper, 
cricket, or other small insect to be found near water-courses or ponds. Middle- 
Angling is done with a shiner, minnow, or shrimp ; and Bottom Fishing with 
a worm or shad-roe. 

Fly fishing is the perfection of fishing, especially with the artificial fly. 
Tou use a stout rod, from ten to twelve feet long ; your reel has on from 
thirty to fifty yards of fine silk, grass, or hair line, with a yard long leader, 
and your fly or flies set on very line gut. Cast your line with the fly before 
you, and do it so dexterously that the fly will fall lightly on the water, and 
as little line with it as possible. This dexterity can only be acquired by 
practice* Your line should be about half as long again as your rod, though, 
as you acquire skill, and want to cast at some likely looking hole at a dis- 
tance, you lengthen it. If you see a fish rise at a natural fly, throw a yard 
or so above him, so as to let your fly float to him naturally. Fish, when you 
can, down the stream. 

In throwing the fly, a most important point, raise the arm well up, with- 
out laboring with the body ; send the fly both backward and forward, by 
a sudden spring of the wrist. Do not draw the fly too near, or you lose 
your purchase for sending it back; and therefore require an extra sweep in 
the air before you can get it into play again. If, after sending it back, you 
make the counterspring too soon, you will crack off your tail-fly ; if a mo- 
ment too late, your line will fall in the water in a heavy and slovenly manner. 
The knack of catching the proper time is what you want to learn, and that 
can only be done by a little careful practice. "When a skilful fisherman 
makes his cast, the extreme end of the casting-line reaches the water first, 
and this is as it should be ; and when it is so, the line falls lightly and almost 
unperceived upon the water. 

We should recommend beginners to put their rod together, draw their line 
through the rings some ten or twelve feet, and practise without casting-line 
on some grass-plot, until they find that they can obtain the necessary skill 
without making a crack like a coachman. Throwing the fly should also be 
practised with the left hand, as it will often be found a great relief. To 
change hands will also enable you to fish with the one next the river, on 
whichever side you may be, and whether you go up or down. After the fol- 
lowing hints have been studied and you are perfect in them, you may com- 
mence the sport. Avoid going too close to the water, if the stream is a 
small one. and never by any chance permit your shadow to be thrown on its 



140 ANGLING. 

surface, availing yourself of stumps and rocks to hide 3 r ou whenever avail- 
able. No fish has keener sight than a trout; and if he should be on a ford 
feeding, one glimpse of the intruder will send him to the depths of the 
neighboring pool or under some inaccessible rock, without the slightest de- 
sire to renew his disturbed meal. Always fish with the shortest possible 
line, as you are thereby enabled more certainly to strike your fish when ho 
rises, which is done by an almost simultaneous movement of the wrist, but 
nothing more — you will at once perceive if the fish is stuck, and your move- 
ment will be sufficient to make the hook take hold, but not to tear it from 
its grip. When a fish is hooked, be particularly cautious that no sudden 
strain is put on the line, and keep cool and ready for any emergency. If 
the trout is strong and in prime condition, his first endeavors to free himself 
will be by throwing himself out of the water, and the angler must be well 
prepared for this frequently successful plan. Immediately he is above the 
surface, drop the point of your rod so as to give him a slack line, for if the 
line should be taut and he strike it in his fall, he will invariably tear himself 
loose ; but at no other time should the line be slack, as the hook, if not 
borne upon, is apt to work out. The next effort w r ill probably be to run 
strong up stream : let him go, bearing sufficiently against him to wear him 
out; as soon as he stops, wind in your spare line as short as possible, 
almost to the casting-line, but on no account beyond ; perhaps he will en- 
deavor to make another run, but each successive one will be more feeble 
than the previous — always taking carefully in line as soon as he halts ; he 
may now endeavor to go down to the bottom and get amongst rubbish, 
stones, etc., which must be carefully prevented by giving him the rod, so 
that ail his efforts will come upon its spring. If you have to move from the 
place where you hooked the fish to land him, always go down stream, and 
endeavor to keep his head above water, and do not attempt to land him till 
thoroughly exhausted. Never attempt to lift your fish out by the line, as 
the dead- weight will frequently break the hold, but use your landing-net, 
which must be put under and behind, not attempting to raise it from the 
water till you see that he is in the pouch. 

In fishing with the minnow, you use a stouter rod, and shorter top, with 
a two yard leader, and a Limerick hook, from No. 2 to 5, according to the 
size of your bait. If you put on the bait in the old way, you must keep it 
in motion ; but, secured as we have before described, the bait will move 
itself. 

In bottom fishing, you may either cast out, and draw gently in, or let it 
remain stationary, if your worm be lively. Under banks, or near rocks, if 
the worm be dropped in carefully, and the angler keep himself conoealed, he 
stands a chance of taking the finest trout. 

The time to strike, experience will show you oetter than any thing else. 
Do not drag him out, even if he be small, as though you wanted to pull the 
hook from his jaws ; and if he be large, give him plenty of line, and play 
him till he is exhausted, or you may lose both hook and leader. 



STRIPED BASS, OR ROCKFISII. PIKE. 



141 



STRIPED BASS, OR ROCKFISH. 






This is a fine game fish, abounding in the rivers, bays, and inlets from the 
capes and bays of Florida to those of Massachusetts, and in the spring of tho 
year ascending the rivers to spawn. The rod and tackle required is the sarao 
as for the salmon, with a hook from Xo. to 3 , according to the game you 
are likely to find. The bait is minnow, shiner, or shad-roe, and when in tho 
bays or mouths of rivers, shedder crabs, shrimp, and shad-roe in their season. 
In boat fishing, in still water, you use a cedar or large cork float, but in fish- 
ing at the bottom of dams or in swift currents, capital places, you have no 
float, and no other s-inker than a plain swivel. 

You manage them, in striking and taking, like the salmon. They can be 
caught also by trolling, with either squid or spoon-bait, or minnow. 

PIKE. 




J& ■ if.?' 



ik 



^■M 



■ "■■ 



The varieties of this fish are numerous. Besides the true pike, there is 
the pickerel, and, in the west and southwest, the Muskelunjeh. Then there 



I4i! ANGLING. 

is a fish known on the Ohio and its waters as the salmon, but properly 
called the 

riKE-PERcn, 

Which is taken in the same manner, and is a bold and game fish. They are 
in time at all seasons, except just after their spawning in April and May, 
and may be taken even in winter by making a hole in the ice. During the 
very hot summer months they will not bite freely. 

You will want for pike-fishing a similar rod and line to that used in catch- 
ing salmon ; but the hook must be set on catgut, covered with wire, such 
as is used for the smallest- wired guitar-string, or the teeth of a large pike 
will saw it through. He fights desperately, and you will need a gaff gener- 
ally. If you attempt to take him without, grasp him by putting your finger 
and thumb in his two eyes. If you are not careful, he will snap your finger 
either off, or wound it fearfully, and that, sometimes, when you think him 
exhausted. 

For bait you can use minnows, large chubs, small suckers, red-horse, or 
frogs — he is not particular. An extra swivel or two, here and there, in the 
first three yards of your line, may be useful 

THE PERCH. 

In this family you will find the white, yellow, and black or red perch. In 
the West and Southwest, they call the black bass Hack perch, but he is a 




different fish, a gristes and not a perca. Perch-fishing is very pretty sport. 
You do not require a very strong line, nor stout pole, and you will rarely, 
unless with a big fellow, have occasion to use the reel. lie is a quick 
biter, and scarcely ever nibbles. The bait may be small minnows, shrimp, 
or worms — the latter almost always gobd in fresh water. Great numbers 
are taken in rivers, from the first hour before the flood of tide to the hour 



BLACK BASS. RED-HORSE. 143 

after, just outside of the channel-grass, with a bow-line, made with a 
whalebone, which is kept near the bottom by a dipsy. Each end of the 
bow is furnished with two or three hooks, set on four or five inches of gut, 
and baited with worms. Sometimes five or six are caught at once. From 
May to July is their best season, and the hook is a Limerick trout, from 2 
to 5 in size. 

BLACK BASS. 

This fish is peculiar to the Western lakes, and the streams running into 
the great rivers of the West. It resembles, in general appearance, the sea- 
bass, but is not black, though it has a blackish appearance above. There 
are several varieties — some bottle-green on top, some with broad stripes 
around them, that fade after they are dead — and all game. They harbor in 
the deep holes in summer, shooting out into the shallows, at times, after 
small fish. The best bait is the minnow or chub, to be caught in their vici- 
nity, or the brooks round about; and if you want big fish, use tolerably 
large bait! 

You take a medium-sized rod, with about fifty yards of line, and a yard 
leader. A swivel sinker, large enough to keep your bait from the surface, 
and a float so large that your bait cannot pull it under, are required. Put 
your hook through the gill-cover of the chub, set your float from three to 
six feet deep, according to the depth of the hole, and throw it gently in. 
Do not strike the first time the float goes under. Wait for the second time, 
and then strike. Play him well, giving him line in proportion to his size 
and strength. He plays game for a while, but soon gives up. A landing- 
net, or your finger in his gills, will secure him. 

The abova: directions, with little variation, will answer for the pike-perch 
in the Western streams. 

THE WHITE LAKE-BASS. 

This fish may be treated like the white perch. 

THE RED-EYE. 

This is a Western fish, looking like a cross between the striped bass and 
the sunfish, with a red spot in his eye. whence the name. He is a game 
little fellow, and to be taken after the manner of the white perch. He is 
good at all seasons. His haunts are principally under the banks, and beneath 
overhanging bushes. 

RED-HORSE. 

This is a species of soft-fleshed fish that is not much sought after except 
in spring, when he swarms in the Western waters. He will not bite well at 
that time, and they take them by spearing. He may be caught with a 
worm, by ground-fishing, in the autumn months, but is bony, and not prized. 
Akin to him is his Eastern relative, the 



144 



ANGLING. 



SUCKER, 

TTho is to he found in our rivers and streams, and the 

MULLET, 

"Who bites a little better than the preceding at a worm. You must always 
fish on the bottom for these, with a small hook, and any moderately strong 
line. They require no skill to secure, and the coarsest and cheapest tackle 
will answer. 

SUNEISH. 

Every boy knows him. There are several varieties. An extemporized 
rod, of length according to the place you fish, a light fine, a No. 7, 8, or 9 
hook, a lively worm or a grasshopper, and you have him. He loves, like 




w,vy?vVv\\c* » 



SUXFISH, OE BEEAM. 



the red-eye, to lie in holes under the bank, and in tolerably deep water. 
His spines protect him from the larger fish, and he is quite game and fear- 
less, as well as very handsome. 

CARP, OR TENCH. 

This is a naturalized fish in the Eastern part of this country; though 
there is a fine large carp in the ^Western waters. The mode of taking both 
is the same. You require strong tackle ; for he is a heavy fish sometimes, 
and strong ; a light quill float, a short leader of gut, and a light-colored 
worm — a brandling being better than an angle-worm. Fish on the bottom, 
or near it. He is a very shy fish, and you had better bait the spots you 
mean to fish the day before, by throwing in bread-crumbs, chicken-entrails, 
or lumps of dough. 



EEL, GARFISH. 145 



EEL. 

There is good sport sometimes with this fellow, in bobbing; but he is not 
much liked on a hook, from his habit of twining the line, and the slime he 
leaves on your fingers if you handle him. He will be found everywhere, 
especially in muddy bottoms, and boys need no instruction about catching 
him. Bobbing for eels is very amusing night sport. You string worms on 
threads, by running a blunt-pointed long needle through them from head to 
tail. When you have enough strings threaded, you tie the ends together, 
and then fold them into a regular hank, like a hank of yarn. This you 
double and treble, until it is about three inches long. Through the middle 




^fe* 



»- Li 




you tie a stout cord, to the bottom of which is a round dipsy. Over this 
last the two ends of the bunch, which should be about the size of a boy's 
fist, hang. You anchor your boat on the muddy flats of a river, at high 
tide, or lean over the bank of a creek or river at a muddy bottom, and drop 
in your bob and sinker. Presently you feel a sharp pull. Draw up into the 
boat, or on the bank. Your eel has his teeth entangled in the thread, and 
cannot generally let go until he is in the boat, or on the bank. Night is 
the time, and the sport is sometimes very lively. 

The way to grasp an eel on the hook, is to place the second finger on one 
side of him, and the first and third on the other, about an inch and a half 
from his neck. Then by pressing the fingers together he cannot move, and 
you may take the hook from his mouth, and throw him in your basket. 

GARFISH. 

This troublesome fellow, called often the garpike, having a long bony 
snout, armed with teeth, is a great nuisance to all boys in the West and 
Southwest, when they fish, by stripping off their bait. No hook will enter 
his hard snout. The best thing, when garpikes are around, is to go some- 
where else. If you want to catch him, however, prepare a bunch of thread 
and horsehair, which dispose of around your five bait ; loosely but firmly. 
7 



14(3 ANGLING. 

Pull out suddenly on the bile, and the chances are that the gar's teeth will 
be so entangled that he will drop on the bank. 

CATFISH. 

The ordinary mud-cat, bull-head, or bull-trout, is little prized, and may be 
caught, like a red-horse, by ground-bait, either a worm, piece of beef, or 
dough-bait But the blue catfish of the Western waters lights very well ; 
and there is a variety, called the white catfish, which comes from the 
sea in the east, to spawn yearly, about June and July, that is game, and 
rather handsome. He is more slender than the others, semi-transparent 




when held to the light, lias a forked tail like a herring, and weighs from four 
ounces up to four pounds. He may be caught like the other. In the Schuyl- 
kill River, a number were kept from returning to the sea by the erection of 
the dam at Fairmount, and they bred in the *iver in great numbers. 

ROACH. 

This is a silver-sided, handsome fish, small, and considered poor eating. 
He may be taken in most of the rivers in the eastern part of the Northern 
States, in the same manner as the sunfish. He will bite well at small lumps 
of dough. 

GOLDFISH. 

These fish, which are a species of carp, originally brought from China, have 
escaped into many of our rivers, from fish-ponds, and have bred there. 
Their capture is like that of the sunfish. as is also the 

CHUB. 

But this is mostly found in small streams, under the bank, or near pro- 
jecting roots. They, with the dace, shiner, minnow, and gudgeon, are prin- 
cipally used for bait. A willow swivel, a Xo. 10. 11, or 12 hook, a stout 
piece of sewing-thread, a worm, and a quill float, if the latter be required, 
and you can land them very rapidly. 



SHEEPSHEAD. DRUMFISH. WEAKFISH. 147 

As some of our young readers may happen to live near the shores of the 
ocean, or some bay, or may be taken there on a visit, we will mention the 
principal fish caught off the Atlantic coast. The finest of all these, proba- 
bly, is the 

SHEEPSHEAD. 

He has a smutty face, banded sides, prominent eyebrows, a grooved dor- 
sal fin, extending entirely down his back, and a queer mouth, not unlike a 
sheep's, whence the name. To capture him you require a strong cord, a quarter 
of an inch in diameter, from twenty to fifty yards long, a heavy sinker, and 
a stout blackfish hook, and either soft shell clam, with the shell on, or 
small rock-crab, and fish near the bottom. 

There is a fresh-water sheepshead, caught at times in the lakes, but he is 
worthless, his flesh being tough, leathery, and disagreeable. 

DRUMFISH. 
This is a very large fish, and not likely to be taken by a boy alone, and we 
only mention it because, when you are fishing for bluefish and bass, you may 
get one on your hook, and unless you arc very expert, and he is very small — 
say about fifteen pounds only in weight — he will teach you the necessity of 
always taking extra hooks and leaders when you fish. 



TVEAKEISII. 



^§m 





This is sometimes called wheatfish," and sometimes squeteague. He has 
an even tail, speckled back and sides, one or more sharp, long front teeth in 
the lower jaw, and yellowish ventral fins. • He is found chiefly in salt or 
brackish waters, in Xew York, Connecticut, and Massachusetts. He bites at 
shrimp and shedder crab, and is to be caught with the same tackle and in 
the same manner as the striped bass, with whom he herds. They will be 
found, however, in rather deeper water, farther from shore, and more in 
the eddies. 



148 



ANGLING. 



KINGFISH, OR BARB. 
This is the most spirited fish in resisting capture that can be found. He 
is only found in New York bay, and there only as an occasional visitor. Ho 
is about sixteen or eighteen inches long, with a pendulous bit hanging from 
his under lip, light brown color, glossed with blue and silver, and dark 
blotches and spots. He may be captured with striped bass tackle and 
bait, but wants about a No. 4 Salmon hook. 



BLUEFISH. 







This fish is taken by trolling with the artificial squid, a piece of lead, 
mother-of-pearl, or bone, about four inches long, armed with a No. 0000 
Kirby hook, with the bend of the hook at right angles with the flat side of 
the squid. The line is cotton, stout, and from forty to sixty yards long. 
"When the fish is hooked, haul in steadily and without intermission, or the 
fish will throw himself off 

BLACKFISH. 

He is sometimes called the tautog. He may be found in the bays from 
Cape May to Cape Cod. Striped bass tackle, and soft-shelled clam bait, are 
wanted for the blackfish ; but he will often bite readily at the large salt 
beach- worm. You must look for him on rocky bottoms ; and he will not 
bite well during a thunder-storm, nor in dull weather. 



REDFISH. 

This is a fish to be found southward of Cape Hatteras, as far as Pasca- 
goula, and occasionally in Delaware Bay, and on the New Jersey coast. His 
length is from one to four feet. He is almost like silver in color, but be- 
comes darker after getting out of the water, and dying shows the prismatic 
colors. Just in front of his tail-fin, near the back of the tail, is a black or 
brown spot, bordered with white, which has given him the name in some 



SEA-BASS. 149 

places of the branded drum. His time of biting is from March, until Janu- 
ary, except very far south, where he is taken all the year. He is caught 
with a stout hand-line aud cod-hook, with shrimp bait or pieces of fish. He 
may be taken with rod and reel by a patient and dexterous angler. 

CODFISH. 

Off the coast of Massachusetts these fish are mostly taken. There is no 
art in catching them. A coarse, strong cord, a large blackfish hook, a piece 
of mud-clam, or moss-breaker, and a heavy sinker. They bite fiercely. 

TOM COD. 

This, sometimes called the frostfish, looks like a young codfish, and is 
caught in all the bays, inlets, and mouths of rivers along the Atlantic coast. 
It is a little fellow, running from six to fifteen inches in length. He can be 
taken with the simplest tackle, and with soft clam, hard clam, or shrimp 
bait, and occasionally will bite freely at worms. 




^ This fish is well known to all who are likely to fish for him. Sometimes 
boys from New York, or other large cities on the coast, make an excursion 
in company with older persons, in the steamboats which are chartered for 
such a purpose during the summer months. All one has to do is to take 
with him about eighty feet of stout hemp line, with two or three No. 1 
Kirby hooks, and a dipsy weighing a pound. This, with hard clams, well 
salted, for bait, and a pair of old gloves, to keep the hands from being chafed 
by hauling on the line so much, completes his outfit. He will be apt to 
catch some porgies at the same time. 

The other sea-fish boys are likely to meet with are flounders and smelt. 



150 



ANGLING. 



The former are caught near New York and Boston, and all along the coast of 
the Middle States, with a small drop-line, No. 8 hook, and soft clam bait. The 
smelt is taken in the rivers of Massachusetts, New York, and New Jersey, 
where they run to spawn in March and April, and return again in October 
and November. They arc caught with a small line, a No. 2 or 3 trout hook, 
a short leader, and pieces of minnow or frog. 

In fishing, the angler will often want to tie a secure knot. "We can recom- 
mend the water-knot, made as follows : 




To tie a leader to a line, you use the ordinary loop-knot, although the 
neatest tie for that purpose is the loop hitch, which we give below. 



There are many other fish which our space does not permit us to describe. 
"v7e have been obliged to content ourselves with a few remarks about the 
best known specimens, and must trust to our young friends to improve their 
knowledge, as they may easily do, by personal observation, and by inquiry 
among the hardy fishermen who are to be found at all our sea-side resorts, 
and are always ready and willing to gratify the curiosity that springs from 
a praiseworthy desire to gain knowledge. 

And thus we leave our young friends, with the hope that they may not 
only amuse, but also instruct themselves at the sea-side. The end of all in- 
vestigation into the nature and habits of living creatures is the same — an 
uncontrollable wonder and admiration at the wisdom which has adapted the 
structure of every thing that breathes to its wants and necessities ; and a 
recognition of the goodness of the Creator, on whom the " eyes of all wait," 
and who, with never-failing bounty, " giveth them their meat in due season." 




FENCING. THE GUARD. 



151 



FENCING. 




It may be that no boy who reads this book will be called on to use either 
the rapier or broadsword, but the value of the scientific management of 
these weapons as an exercise, — from the grace it imparts to the move- 
ments, the vigor to the system, the keenness of eye it encourages and 
promotes, is undeniable. The most eminent physicians concur in recom- 
mending these exercises, that of the small-sword in particular. 

In learning fencing with rapiers, there are required for each one, a strong 
wire mask to protect the face ; foils, or mock swords, with buttons on the 
tip ; a well-padded glove for the hand, and a shield of leather sewn on 
the front and collar of the jacket. Before proceeding to exercise, the buttons 
on the tip of each foil should be carefully examined, to see that they are 
secure. 

All being ready, the beginner puts himself in the position called 



THE GUARD, 

From which all movements, whether offensive or defensive, are made. The 
beginner must stand with his knees straight, Ms feet at right angles, heel to 
heel; the right foot, right side, and face directed to the master. The body 
must be held upright and firm, the arms hanging down by the side, but 
easily and without constraint ; the left hand holding the foil a few inches 
beneath its guard. Next let him bring the right hand across the body, and 



152 FENCING. 

seize the foil-handle ; by a second movement, bring the foil above the head, 
the hands separating as they ascend, until both arms be nearly extended 
upward and outward. Hero pause. This may bo called the first position of 
the Guard. 

These movements should be frequently practised, as they accustom the 
arms to move independently of the body, flatten the joints of the shoulders, 
and give prominence to the chest. 

To arrive at the second position of the G-uard, the right arm, with the foil, 
is brought down to the front, until the right elbow is a little above and in 




advance of the waist ; the fore-arm and foil sloping upward ; the point of 
the foil being the height of the upper part of the face ; then, by a second 
movement, the learner must sink down, separating the knees, and stepping 
forward with the right foot fourteen or sixteen inches ; for, of course, the 
guard of a tall man will be wider than that of a short one. However, his 
own comfort in the position wull direct him as to the distance ; and the gen- 
eral rule is, that the knee of the left leg will jut over the toes of the left foot, 
and the right leg from ankle to knee be perpendicular. It is in this posi- 
tion that he will receive all attacks from an adversary, and from this position 
will all his own attacks be made. Also in this position will he 

ADVANCE 

Upon an adversary, when beyond hitting distance. The step in the advance 
is usually about that of the width of the Guard, although of course this 
would vary with circumstances. The step is made by advancing the right 
foot the distance we have named ; and on its reaching the ground, the left 
foot is brought up and takes its place. To 

RETREAT, 

The reverse of the above movement is made. The left foot takes the lead, 
stepping to the rear about as far as the right had stepped to the front ; the 



THE LONGE. THE RECOVER. 



153 



right occupying its place on its taking up its new position. The next move- 
ment, 

THE LOXGE, 

Is a very important movement, and is rather difficult to make properly, and 
fatiguing to practise. Indeed, the first movements in fencing are the most 
trying to the learner ; and he must not be discouraged if he fails to do them 
correctly at first — practice only will give him this power. The Longe is 
that extension of body which accompanies every attack, and is thus made : 




the right arm is extended straight from the shoulder, the arm and blade be- 
ing on the same level ; by a second movement, the right foot is raised from 
the ground, and a step made forward, about eighteen inches in length, while 
the left remains firmly planted in its place. At the instant that this step is 
made, the left hand is allowed to fall within a few inches of the left thigh, 
and the left knee is stiffened back until the leg is perfectly straight. 

The thigh of the right leg will now be in a position nearly horizontal ; 
from the knee downwards, perpendicular. Having executed the Longe, the 
next movement to be made is 

THE RECOVER; 

That is, to return from the position of the Longe to that of the Guard, and 
is thus effected : the left arm is nimbly thrown up to its place, the right 
arm drawn in, and the left knee re-bent. These movements must be made 
at the same time, as it is their united action that enables a person to recover 
from so extended a position as the Longe quick enough to avoid a thrust, if 
his own attack has failed. 

These movements must be frequently practised before any others are 
attempted — the G-uard, the Advance, the Retreat, the Longe, and the 
Recover ; and when the learner has attained some proficiency in them, he 

f7* 



154 FENCING, 

may begin the more delicate movements of attack and defence. Of these we 
will now speak. 

THE ENGAGE. 

It is customary for adversaries, on coming to the Guard, to Engage, or to 
join blades, on what is called the inside, that is, the right side ; although 
there are occasions on which it is advisable to engage on the outside, or on the 
left ; otherwise called the Quarte or Tierce sides. 

Two men thus opposed to each other will at once perceive that there are 
two lines of attack open to them, i. e., the line inside and the line outside the 
blade — these, and no more. But these may be, and in fencing are, subdi- 
vided into inside above the hand, and inside under the hand, and the same 
subdivision for outside. This gives four lines of attack— or, to speak more 
simply, gives four openings through which an adversary may be assailed. 
Kow, to protect each of these assailable points, are four defensive move- 
ments, called 

PARADES, 
Each, opening has its own parade or defence, and each parade will guard 
its own opening, and, strictly speaking, no other. The opening inside above 
the hand is defended by two parades. 




As its name imports, the first and most natural parade is that of Prime. 
The action of drawing the sword from its sheath is almost exactly the move- 
ment made use of in the parade of Prime. 

In this parade, the hand is raised as high as the forehead, so that the 
fencer can see his opponent's face under his wrist. The blade of the foil is 
almost horizontal, but the point is rather lowered toward the ground. As 
this parade will throw the right side of the body open to the adversary's 



QUARTE. TIERCE. 



155 



sword, it is good play to disengage from left to right, and deliver a rapid 
thrust at the adversary, in order to anticipate him before he can bring his 
own sword round for another thrust. His point will be thrown far out of 
line, so that he is behindhand in point of time. 

This is a very useful parade for fencers of short stature, as they can 
sometimes get in their blade under their adversary's arm, after they have 
parried his thrust. 

The other parade is that of 

QUARTE. 

It is thus formed. On the approach of the point of an adversary's blade 
(and how these approaches are made we will presently explain), the right 
hand is moved a few inches — three or four will be enough — across the body 
on the inside ; the hand being neither depressed nor raised, and the foil 
being kept on the same slope as in the G-uard. This guards the body ou 
the inside above the hand, but (and here comes an important law in fenc- 




ing) the very movement which has guarded the body on one side has 
exposed it on the other ; this is the case with all the simple parades. 

Suppose, now, that the exposed part outside above the hand were assailed, 
then the defence for it is the parade of 



TIERCE. 

It is formed by turning the hand with the nails downward, and crossing 
to the opposite side some six or eight inches ; the hand and point at the 
same elevation as before : this will guard this opening. If, however, the 
attack had been made under instead of over the hand, then the proper pa- 
rade would have been Seconde. 

There ia another method of parrying called Quarte, over the arm, which 



156 



FENCING. 



is executed by making almost the same parade as in Tierce, with this excep- 
tion — first, the hand is retained in its original position, with the nails up- 
ward ; and. secondly, the point is not raised above the eye of the adversary. 




It is rather more delicate than Tierce, but wants its power and energy. 
The Ripostes, or reply thrusts, are made as they would have been had the 
parade been that of Tierce. 




SECONDE 

Is formed by turning the hand in the same position in which it was turned 
for Tierce, but the point of the foil slopes as much downward as in Tierce 
it did upward; the direction and distance for the hand to traverse being the 



DEMI-CERCLE. OCTAVE. 



157 




same. Again, had the attack been delivered at none of these, but at the 
inside under the hand, then the proper parade would have been 

DEMI-CERCLE, 




Which, as its name expresses, is a half-circle, described by a sweep of the 
blade traversing the under line. Next comes the parade of f5? 



OCTAVE. 

In this parade the hand is held as in Quarte ; the hilt of the foil is kept 
lower than that of the opponent ; the blade is almost horizontal, the point 
being only slightly lower than the hilt, and directed toward the body of the 
adversarv. 



153 



FENCING. 



Octave is extremely useful when the fencer misses his parade of Demi- 
cercle, as there is but a short distance for the point to traverse, and it gen- 
erally meets the blade of the adversary before the point can be properly 
fixed. Moreover, it brings the point so near the adversary's body, that he 
will not venture to make another thrust until he has removed the foiL 




Thus we have enumerated, and partly explained, the forms and uses of 
these four parades : they are called Simple Parades, to distinguish them from 
another set of defensive movements, called 



CONTRE-PARADES. 

We have said and shown that a man standing foil in hand, in the position 
of the Guard, is exposed in four distinct places to thrusts from an adversary, 
within longeing distance. We have also shown that he has a defence for 
each of these exposed places ; but if a man has but one defence for each, 
assailable part, then his adversary, knowing beforehand what the defence 
must be, would be prepared beforehand to deceive him. But if he has a 
reserve — if he has a second defence for each part, then the adversary cannot 
tell what the defence will be, until his attack, false or real, is begun. 

To meet this contingency, a second series of defences have been devised, 
which are of an entirely different nature from the Simple Parades. 

Again, as each of the simple parades is framed to guard only one open- 
ing, it was found desirable that the contre-parades should be of a more com- 
prehensive character. They are therefore devised so that each is capable 
of protecting the entire front. It is evident that this object could not be 
attained without the sacrifice of quickness, because a larger space must be 
traversed, and therefore more time is occupied with a contre than a simple 
parade. 

To know one contre-parade is virtually to know all, as they are all formed 
on the same plan. They are all full circles in the position of hand and 
direction of foil of the different simple parades ; or, more clearly speaking, 



ATTACKS. THE ONE-TWO. 159 

each simple parade has a contre-parade ; there are, therefore, four simple 
and four contre-parades, which may be thus arranged : 

Quarte Contre cle Quarte. 

Tierce Contre de Tierce. 

Seconde Contre de Seconde. 

Demi-cercle Contre de Cercle. 

"We have said that a contre-parade is a full circle in the position of hand 
and direction of blade of its simple; thus, contre de quarte is made by 
retaining' the hand in the position of quarte, while the foil describes a cir- 
cle descending on the inside, and returning by the outside to the place of its 
departure. So with all the others, the foil following the direction of the sim- 
ple parade, of which it is the contre. These complete the entire system of 
defences. 

"We now come to movements of an opposite nature, namely, the 

ATTACKS, 

And shall begin with the most simple of them. "We will again suppose 
two adversaries standing, en guard, within longeing distance of each other : 
now, the most simple movement that the attacking party could make, 
would be 

THE STRAIGHT THRUST, 

To the outside or inside, according to his line of engagement. We have, in 
describing the longe, in effect described the straight thrust ; it is but a longe 
in a straight line, taking care, however, to feel firmly the adversary's blade, 
but taking care also not to press or lean on it during the delivering of the 
thrust. 

Next in character comes 

THE DISENGAGEMENT. 

This attack is made by dropping the point of the foil beneath the adver- 
sary's blade, and raising it on the opposite side, at the same time, rising 
with the arm fully extended ; on the completion of the extension the longe 
is made and the thrust delivered. 

THE ONE-TWO 

Is but a double disengagement, the first being but a feint or false attack, to 
induce the adversary to form a parade to cover the part threatened, for the 
covering of one part of the body exposes the opposite : the second disen- 
gagement is made to take advantage of this exposure. The arm is extended 
halfway on the first, and then wholly on the second, to be immediately fol- 
lowed by the longe. 

The practice of this lesson evinces the advantages of a proper and suf- 
ficient extension, and a parade that is not too wide. The quick extension 



160 FENCING. 

of the left leg and right arm, performed during the disengage, should throw 
the point towards your adversary's breast with such an emphasis as to 
resemble a thrust; at once forcing him to a parade, and taking a position 
much nearer to his body, rendering a second disengage beneath his tierce 
parade almost certain to hit. if not met with corresponding neatness by the 
defence. The parades must be precise, coming to sufficient guard, and no 
more. If the parade of tierce be made too wide, you cannot get back to 
carte in time. 

Let the attacking party have the option of thrusting home in the one, a3 
the adversary's knowledge that it is but & feint may prevent him from going 
fully to guard. 

ONE, TWO, THREE. 

When a facility has been acquired in practising the one, two, the pupils 
may commence the one, two, three, making the first disengage by the exten- 
sion of the arm alone; the two by the full extension; and the three by tho 
complete longe, to be answered by the parades of tierce, carte, and tierce again. 

Let the attack be neat and deliberate, not exhibiting so much anxiery to 
obtain a hit as to be correct and precise ; quickness will follow, of course. 
The attacked party should stand his ground, with his left foot firm; as 
nothing gives greater promise of excellence than receiving the hit without 
flinching the body. Make the parades neat, and keep cool ; for any nervous 
snappishness in your motion is fatal to good fencing. The simple turn of 
the wrist from carte to tierce, is almost sufficient to cover the body. Take 
care that your hand is high enough, so that you do not oppose the foible, or 
weak part, of your blade, to the forte, or strong, of your adversary's. 

APPELS, BEATS ON THE BLADE, AND GLIZADES. 

Appels, beats, and glizades, tend to plant you firm npon your guard, to 
embarrass your adversary, and cause him to give you openings ; they may 
be performed previously to simple thrusts, feints, or counter-disengage- 
ments, &c. An appel, or beat with the foot, is performed either on the 
engagement of carte or tierce, by suddenly raising and letting fall the right 
foot, with a beat on the same spot ; taking care to balance the body, and 
keep a good position on guard. 

The beat on the blade is abruptly touching your adversary's blade so as 
to startle him, and get openings to thrust. If he resist the beat, instan- 
taneously disengage, and thrust home. If he nse a simple parade, mark 
feint one, two ; or. if he use a counter-parade, counter-disengage, or double. 

Glizades are slightly gliding your blade along your adversary's, at the 
same time forming the extension of the arm, or the complete extension, 
managing and restraining your body, so as to be aware of his thrust, and to 
make sure of your own. If you be engaged in carte, out of measure, a quick 
advance, with a glizade, must infallibly give you some openings, either to 
mark feints or otherwise. *" 



BEAT AND THRUST. CUT OVER. 161 



THE BEAT AND THRUST. 



This is another variety of attack. Supposing the adversary's blade to be 
firmly joined to yours, when you wished to deliver a straight thrust, there 
would then be danger of your falling upon his point. This danger is avoided 
by giving a slight beat on his blade the instant preceding your extension of 
arm, of course to be followed en suite by the longe. 

The companion attack to this attack is 

THE BEAT AND DISENGAGEMENT. 

The heat here takes the character of the first disengagement in one-two, 
i. e., becomes a feint, and is intended to induce the adversary to return to 
the place he occupied when the beat was made. You then immediately pass 
to the opposite side of his blade in the manner described in the disengagement. 

It will be seen that all these movements pass under the adversary's blade. 
However, there are certain situations in the assault, as a fencing bout is 
called, when an adversary is more assailable over the point than undei the 
blade ; for this purpose there is what the French call the coupe sur point, or 

CUT OYER THE POINT. 

It is thus made : By the action of the hand, and without drawing it back 
at all, the foil is raised and brought down on the opposite side of the adver- 
sary's blade, the arm being extended during its fall to the horizontal position, 
on attaining which the longe is delivered. 

CUT OYER AND DISENGAGEMENT 

Is on the same principle as the one-two and the teat and disengagement On 
the adversary opposing the first movement (the cut) with a parade, the 
second movement (the disengagement) is made to the opposite side, to be 
followed of course by the longe ; the extension of the arm being divided 
between the two movements. 

These attacks are called simple attacks, because they may be parried by 
one or more simple parades, according to the number of movements in the 
attack. In fact, every attack can be parried, and every parade can be de- 
ceived: it is the additional movement last made which hits or guards. 

Thus, you threaten by a disengagement to the outside ; your adversary 
bars your way effectually by the parade of tierce ; you make a second disen- 
gagement to the inside, which is now exposed from the very fact of the out- 
side being guarded (for both lines of attack cannot be guarded at the same 
time), thus converting your attack into one-two ; but if your adversary par- 
ries quarte on your second movement, your attack would be warded off. 
This can be carried much further, but the above will, we think, be sufficient 
to explain the nature of simple parades and attacks. 



1C2 FENCING. 

To deceive a contre-yarade, a separate movement, called a double, or 

DOUBLE, 

Has been invented ; it is very simple in principle, and admirably answers 
the purpose. For instance, if you were to threaten your adversary by a 
disengagement to the outside, and if, instead of tierce, he parried contre de 
quartz, the double is then made by your making a second disengagement to 
the same side as the first, for it will be found that his contre de quark has re- 
placed the blades in the positions they occupied previous to your disengage- 
ment. You will then have an opening, and may finish the attack by the longe. 
As all the contre-parades are on the same plan and principle, so are ail 
the doubles. Of course, it is understood that you will make all the move- 
ments of the double en suite, and without allowing your adversary's blade to 
overtake yours. 

ALL FEINTS. 

The foregoing movements having been well practised in the lesson, the 
next step is that of all feints and all parades, and may be practised either 
with a master or fellow-pupiL The practice consists of one pupil standing 
on the defensive entirely, while another assumes the offensive, and attacks 
him with all the feints of which he is master, the other, of course, defending 
with all his parades. It is excellent practice, as it accustoms the pupil to 
think for himself gradually, he having thus but one set of movements to 
think about. He is therefore enabled to make them boldly, without having 
to encounter unknown ^movements from his adversary. 

It also enables Mm to see the extent of his resources, both for attack and 
defence. When he can both attack and defend with some presence of mind 
he may then begin 

THE ASSAULT; 

That is, he may encounter an adversary, to attack or defend as occasion pre- 
sents. He is then left to his own resources entirely. The following 

GENERAL ADVICE, 

Given by a very eminent fencer and excellent teacher, cannot fail to be of 
use: 

" Do not put yourself on the position of the guard within the reach of 
your adversary's thrust, especially at the time of drawing your sword. 

" If you are much inferior, make no long assaults. 

11 Do nothing that is useless ; every movement should tend to your 
advantage. 

" Let your movements be made as much within the line of your adversary's 
body as possible. 

" Endeavor both to discover your adversary's designs, and to conceal 
your own. 



BROADSWORD. POSITIONS. 163* 

"Two skilful men, acting together, fight more with their heads than 
their hands. 

" The smaller you can make the movements with your foil, the quicker 
will your pomt arrive at your adversary's body. 

" Do not endeavor to give many thrusts on the longe, thus running the 
risk of receiving one in the interim. 

<: If your adversary drops his foil by accident, or in consequence of a 
smart parade of yours, you should immediately pick it up, and present it to 
him politely. 

" Always join blades (if possible) previously to another attack, after a hit 
is given." 

BROADSWORD. 

The principal distinction between the broadsword and the rapier is, that 
the latter is formed only for thrusting, while the former is adapted for cut- 
ting also. Indeed, those who use the broadsword are, in our opinion, too 
apt to neglect the use of the point, and to give their attention almost 
exclusively to the cuts. 

The first lesson in the sword exercise is necessarily to know how to 
stand. The learner should be instructed to perform the different move- 
ments by word of command, remembering to consider the first parts of the 
word as a caution, and not to stir until the last syllable is uttered. At the 
last syllable, the movement should be performed smartly. In giving the 
word, the instructor always makes a slight pause, in order to give his pupils 
time to remember what they must do. For example, the words Draw 

Swords, is given thus : Draw Swords — the word swords being 

spoken smartly, in order that the movement may correspond. 



POSITIONS. 

First Position. — Make the target* about fourteen inches in diameter, 
and place it on the wall, having its centre about four feet from the 
ground. Draw a perpendicular line from the spot at the bottom of the 
target to the ground, and continue it on the floor, in order to insure the 
proper position of the heels. The learner stands perfectly upright opposite 
the target, with his right side toward it, his heels close together, his right 
toe pointing to the target, and his left foot at right angles with the right. 
His arms must be clasped behind his back, his right palm supporting the 
left elbow, and his left hand grasping the right arm just above the elbow. 
In this position, he must bend both knees and sink down as far as possible. 
" This will not be very far at first, but he will soon sink down quite easily. 
See accompanying figure (1). 

* For target, see page 165. 



IGi 



BROADSWORD. 





Fig. 1. 



Fig. 2. 



Second Position. — This is accomplished by placing the right foot smartly 
in front, about fourteen or sixteen inches before the left. (See Fig. 2.) He 
must accustom himself to balance himself so perfectly on his left foot, 
that he can place the right either before or behind it, without losing his 
balance. 

Third Position. — The third position must then be learned. This consists 
in stepping well forward with the right foot, until the left knee is quite 
straight, and the right knee exactly perpendicularly placed over the right 
foot. Great care must be taken to keep the heels exactly in the same line, 
and the body perfectly upright. (See Fig. 3.) 




Fig. 3. 

These preliminaries having been settled, the learner stands upright before 
the target, as in Fig. 1. A sword is then put into his hand, and the target is 
explained as follows : 



TARGET. 



165 



TARGET. 

The interior lines represent the cuts. Cut one being directed from No. 1 
diagonally through the target, coming out at 4. Cut two is the same, only 
from left to right. Three is made upwards diagonally, and four is the same, 




only in the opposite direction. Cut five is horizontally through the target, 
from right to left, and six from left to right. Cut seven is perpendicularly 
downward. Care must be taken that the cuts are fairly given with the edge. 
The swords drawn on the target represent the guards. The seventh 
guard ought, however, not to be made directly across, but must have the 
point directly rather forward and downward, as a cut 7 glides off the 
blade, and can be instantly answered either by a thrust or by cut 1. 




The two dark circles represent the places where the thrusts take effect. 
The learner begins by taking the sword in his right hand, having its edge 
toward the target and its back resting on his shoulder. His right arm is 



166 



BROADSWORD. 



bent at right angles, and tho elbow against his side. The left hand must 
rest upon the hip, the thumb being to the rear. At the word — 

CUTS AND GUARDS. 

CUTS. 

Out 1. — The young swordsman extends his right arm, and makes the cut 
clear through the target. When the point has cleared the target, continue 
the sweep of the sword, and by a turn of the wrist bring it with its back on 
the left shoulder, its edge toward the left. The arm is then ready for 

Cut 2. — Bring the sword from 2 to 3, continue the movement of the 
sword, and turn the wrist so that the point is below the right hip and tho 
edge toward the ground. 

Cut 3. — Cut through the target diagonally, bringing the sword from No. 
3 to No. 2, and bring the sword onwards, so that it rests with the edge 
downwards, and point below the left hip. At 

Cut 4. — Cut from 4 to 1, and bring the sword round until its point is over 
the right shoulder, and its edge well to the right. 

Cut 5. — At the word Five, make a horizontal cut from 5 to 6, and sweep 
the sword round until it rests on the left shoulder, with its edge to the left, 
and its point well over the shoulder. 

Cut 6. — Cut horizontally through the target, from 6 to 5, and bring the 
sword over the head, with its edge upward, and its point hanging over the 
back. From this position, — 

Cut *7. — Make a downward stroke until the sword reaches the centre of 
the target. Arrest it there, and remain with the arm extended, waiting for 
the word 

POINTS. 





FIRST POINT. 



SECOND POINT. 

First Point — Drawback the sword until the right wrist is against the right 
temple, the edge of the sword being upward. Make a slight pause, and then 



GUARDS. PARRY. 



167 



thrust smartly forward toward the centre of the target, raising the right 
wrist as high as No. 1, and pressing the left shoulder well back. 

Second Point. — Turn the wrist round to the 
left, so that the edge comes upward, draw the 
hand back until it rests on the breast, and give 
the point forward to the centre of the target, 
raising t]ie hand as before. 

TJiird Point, — Give the handle of the sword a 
slight twist in the hand to the right, so that the 
edge again comes uppermost, and the guard 
rests against the back of the hand. Draw back 
the hand until it rests against the right hip, and 
deliver it forward toward the spot at the bottom 
of the target, raising the wrist as high as the 
spot in the centre. The object in raising the 
wrist is to deceive the eye of the opponent, who 
will be more likely to notice the position of your 
wrist than of your point. In all the thrusts the 

1IIIED POINT. ^ r 

left shoulder should be rather brought forward 
before the point is given, and pressed well back while it is being delivered. 




GUARDS. 

"Wait after the third point has been delivered for the word 
Defend. — At this word draw up the hand smartly and form the first guard. 
Make the other guards in succession as they are named, while the instructor 
proves their accuracy by giving the corresponding cuts. The guards must 
be learned from the target, by placing the sword in exactly the same posi- 
tion as those delineated. The guards are these : — 

A. First guard. E, Fifth. 

K Second. F. Sixth. 

C. Third. a. Seventh. 

D. Fourth. 

The two spots H and I mark the places toward which the points are made, 
H for the first and second point, I for the third. 



PARRY. 

The pairy or parade of a thrust is executed with the back of the sword. 
The firmest way of parrying is to hold the sword perpendicular, with its 
edge to the right and its hilt about the height of and close to the right 
shoulder ; then, by sweeping the sword round from left to right, any thrust 
within its sweep is thrown wide from the body. 

The parry is executed with the wrist and not with the arm, which must 
not move. 



168 



BROADSWORD. 



HANGING GUARD. 

TThen the pupil is acquainted with both cuts and guards, he should 
learn the hanging guard, a most useful position, as it keeps the body well 
hidden under the sword, and at the same time leaves the sword in a good 
position to strike or thrust. 

It is accomplished in the follow- 
ing way. Step out to the second 
position, as in Fig. 2, raise the arm 
until the hand is just over the right 
foot, and as high as the head. The 
edge of the sword is upward, and 
the point is directed downward and 
toward the left. The left shoulder 
is pressed rather forward, and the 
neck and chest drawn inward. 

In this position the swordsman is 
in a position to receive or make 
an attack, as he may think fit. It 
is rather fatiguing at first, owing 
to the unaccustomed position of the 
arm and head, but the fatigue is soon overcome, and then it will be found 
that there is no attitude which gives equal advantages. 

There are two other modes of standing on guard, each possessing its 
peculiar advantages. These are, the inside and outside guard. The inside 
guard is made as follows : 

INSIDE GUARD. 




HANGING GUARD. 




Stand in the second position, having the wrist of the right hand nearly as 
low as the waist, the hand being exactly over the right foot. The point of 



OUTSIDE GUARD. ATTACK AND DEFENCE. 



109 



the sword is raised as high as the eyes, and the edge is turned inward, as 
will be seen from the foregoing engraving. 

OUTSIDE GUARD. 




The outside guard is formed in the same manner as the inside, with the 
exception that the edge of the sword is turned well outward. 

To get to the hanging guard, the words are given as follows: Inside 
Guard — Outside Guard — Guard. 



ATTACK AND DEFENCE. 

The swordsman, having learned thus far, is taught to combine the three 
movements of striking, thrusting, and guarding, by the following ex- 
ercise : 



1. Inside Guard. 

2. Outside Guard. 

3. Guard. 

4. Cut one. 

5. First Guard. 

6. Cut two. 

7. Second Guard. 

8. Cut three. 

9. Third Guard. 

10. Cut Four. 

11. Fourth Guard. 



12. Cut Fire. 

13. Fifth Guard. 

14. Cut Six. 

15. Sixth Guard. 

16. Cut Seven. 

17. Seventh Guard. 

18. First point. [Prepare 
for the point in First Posi- 
tion.] Two. [Thrust in 
Third Position.] 



19. Second Point. [Pre- 
pare for it in First Position.] 
Two. [Thrust in Third Po- 
sition.] 

20. Third Point. [Pre- 
pare.] Two. [Thrust] 

21. Parry. [Prepare to 
parry in First Position.] 
Two. [Parry.] 

22. Guard. 



Our young friends will find the foregoing a really excellent piece of drill, 
and sufficiently interesting also to make it a pastime. "When the pupil can 
accomplish all these combinations neatly, accurately, and promptly, he will 
have made no inconsiderable progress as a broadswordsman or a single-stick 
player. 

8 



170 



BROADSWORD. 



The young swordsman must remember that in this, as in all the exercises, 
the cuts and points must be given in the third position, as in the accom- 
panying illustration, which shows the swordsman just as he has delivered 
the seventh cut, and is waiting for the next word before he resumes the 
first position. 




8EVEXTH CUT. 



The guards, on the contrary, are given in the first 
position, as seen in the accompanying illustration, 
which illustrates the seventh guard. 

These exercises are always learned with the single- 
stick, or basket-hilted cudgel, in order to avoid the 
dangers which would be inevitable if the sword were 
used. But as the single-stick is only an imitation of 
the sword, we will give the method of getting the 
sword out of the sheath into any position required. 

DRAW SWORDS. 

The first word of command is draiu swords. At the 
word draw, seize the sheath just below the hilt, with the 
left hand, and raise the hilt as high as the hip, at the 
same time grasping the hilt with the right hand, turn- 
ing the edge of the sword to the rear, and drawing it 
partially from the sheath, to insure its easy removal. 

At the word svjords, draw the blade smartly out of 
the scabbard, throwing the point upward, at the full 
extent of the arm, the edge being still to the rear. 

RECOVER SWORDS. 

The wrist is now smartly lowered until it is level with the chin, the 
blade upright, and the edge to the left. This is the position of recover 
swords. The elbow must be kept close to the body, as in the following 
cut. 




SEVENTH GTTAED. 



CARRY SWORD. PRACTICES. 



171 




BBTIOVER SWORDS. 



CARRY SWORDS. 

The wrist is now sharply lowered until the arm 
hangs at its full length, the wrist being in the line with 
the hip. the edge of the sword to the front, and its 
back resting in the hollow of the shoulder, the fingers 
lightly holding the hilt. The left hand hangs at the 
side until the word inside guard, when it is placed on 
the left hip. 

SLOPE SWORDS. 

At the word swords, raise the right hand smartly, 
until it forms a right angle at the elbow. 

RETURN SWORDS. 

At the word, raise the blade until it is perpendicular, 
move the hilt to the hollow of the left shoulder, drop 
the point of the sword into the scabbard (which has 
been grasped by the left hand and slightly raised), at the 
same time turning the edge to the rear. Pause an in- 
stant, and send the sword smartly into the sheath, re- 
moving both hands as the hilt strikes against the mouth of the scabbard : 
drop them to the side, with the palms outward, and stand in the first position. 

PRACTICES. 

There are many exercises with the broadsword, called Practices. We have 
given one of them, which is to be practised alone ; but when the pupil has 
attained some confidence in the use of his weapon, he must be placed oppo- 
site another pupil, and they must go through them, each taking the attack 
and defence in turn. 

The young swordsman must be provided with a very stout wire mask, 
which defends the face and part of the neck, and which should be worked 
in a kind of helmet above, to guard against the disastrous consequences of 
receiving the seventh guard. No practices, loose or otherwise, should be 
permitted without the masks, as neither party would be able to cut or thrust 
with proper confidence. 

SECOND PRACTICE. 

This is very useful in teaching the point and parry, as well as giving 
steadiness on the feet. Two boys are placed opposite each other, at just 
such a distance, that when perfectly erect they can touch the hilt of their 
adversary's sword with the point of their own. 

The one who gives the first point is called Front Rank (there may be a 
dozen in each rank, each having tried the distance to his right by extending 
his sword), and the one who gives first parry is called Rear Rank. 



172 



BROADSWORD. 



WORD OF COXIMAKD, 

Guard. 
Third Point. 



Toint. 



FRONT RANK. REAR RANK. 

Hanging Guard. Hanging Guard. 

Prepare to give Third Point. Prepare to Tarry. 
Give Third Point, and when"! 
parried spring back to First I Parry Third Point, and pro- 
position, and prepare to par- [ pare to give Third Point, 
ry. J 

j Parry Third Point, and prepare ) Give Third Point, and pre- 
1 for Third Point. J pare to Parry. 



Point. 
Point, &c, &c. 
This should be continued until both are weary. 



Both swordsmen should 
learn to do it more rapidly every time they practise. Next time of going 
through it, front rank and rear rank change places, as they must do in all 
the practices. 





THIRD PRACTICE 




VOED OP COMMAND. 


FRONT RANK. 


REAR RANK. 


Guard. 


Hanging Guard. 


Hanging Guard, 


Leg. 


Cut Four. 


Cut Seven. 


Inside Guard. 


Inside Guard. 


Inside Guard. 


Leg. 


Cut Six [at Leg]. 


Cut Six [at Feck]. 


Outside Guard. 


Outside Guard. 


Outside Guard. 


Beg- 


Cut Five [at Leg]. 


Cut Five [at Neck]. 


Guard. 


Hanging Guard. 


Hanging Guard. 


Slope Sword. 


Slope Swords. 


Slope Swords. 



In this and the other practices, the cuts must be delivered in the third 
position, and the guards in the first. In the third and fourth practices, the 
cuts must be given lightly, as many of them are not intended to be guarded, 
but merely to show the powers of the sword in various positions. 



FOURTH PRACTICE. 



ORD OF COMMAND. 


FRONT RANK. 


REAR RANK. 


Guard. 


Hanging Guard. 


Hanging Guard. 


Head. 


Seventh Cut. 


Seventh Guard. 


Head. 


Seventh Guard. 


Cut Seven. 


Leg. 


Fourth Cut. 


Seventh Guard. 


Leg. 


Seventh Guard. 


Fourth Cut. 


Head. 


Seventh Cut. 


Seventh Guard. 


Head. 


Seventh Guard. 


Seventh Cut. 


Guard. 


Hanging Guard. 


Hanging Guard. 


Slope Swords. 


Slope Swords. 


Slope Swords. 



In this and the preceding exercise, the power of shifting the leg is shown. 
If two swordsmen attack each other, and No. 1 strikes at the leg of No. 
2, it will be better for No. 2 not to oppose the cut by the third or fourth 
guard, but to draw back the leg smartly, and cut six or seven at the adver- 
sary's head or neck. 

In loose play, as it is called, i. e., when two parties engage with swords 
without following any word of command, but strike and guard as they can, 



FIFTH PHACTICE. DRAWING CUT. 



173 



both players stand in the second position, because they can either advance 
or retreat as they choose, and can longe out to the third position for a thrust 
or a cut, or spring up to the first position for a guard, with equal ease. 

It is often a kind of trap, to put the right leg more forward than usual, 
in order to induce the adversary to make a cut at it. When he does so, the 
leg is drawn back, the stroke passes harmless, and the deceived striker gets 
the stick of his opponent on his head or shoulders. 

We now come to a very complicated exercise, called the 

FIFTH PRACTICE. 



rORD OF COMMAND. 


FRONT RANK. 


REAR RANK. 


Draw Swords. 


Draw Swords. 


Draw Swords. 


Inside Guard. 


Inside Guard. 


Inside Guard. 


Outside Guard. 


Outside G.iurd. 


Outside Guard. 


Guard. 


Hanging Guard. 


Hanging Guard. 


Head. 


Seventh Cut. 


Seventh Guard. 


Head. 


Seventh Guard. 


Seventh Cut. 


Arm. 


Second Cut [at Arm]. 


Second Guard. 


Head. 


Seventh Guard. 


Seventh Cut. 


Head. 


Seventh Cut. 


Seventh Guard. 


Arm. 


Second Guard 


Second Cut [at Arm]. 


Head. 


Seventh Cut. 


Seventh Guard. 


Head. 


Seventh Guard. 


Seventh Cut. 


Eight Side. 


Sixth Cut. 


Sixth Guard. 


Head. 


Seventh Guard. 


Seventh Cut. 


Head. 


Seventh Cut. 


Seventh Guard. 


Eight Side. 


Sixth Guard. 


Sixth Cut. 


Guard. 


Hanging Guard. 


Hanging Guard. 



This practice is capital exercise, and looks very imposing. All these 
practices ought to be so familiar, that the words of command are not 
needed, the only word required being First, Second, or Third Practices, as 
the case may be. 

FOPvT AXD FEEBLE. 

The half of the sword-blade next the hilt is called the '"'fort." because it 
is the strongest place on which the cut of an adversary can be received. 
Always parry and guard with the fort of your sword, as. if you try to 
guard a cut with the "feeble," which is the remaining half of the blade, 
your guard will be forced, and the cut take effect. 

DRAWING CUT. 

The drawing cut is made best with a curved sword, and is executed by 
placing the edge of the sword on the object, and drawing it over it until it is 
severed. A good large mangel-wurzel is capital practice. Place the root 
loose on a table, stand at arms' length from it, lay the edge of the sword light- 
ly on it, and slice the root by repeatedly drawing the sword over it This is 
very difficult, though it looks easy enough, and is sure to jar the arm from tha 
wrist to the shoulder the first time or two, while the sword glides off as if the 



174 



BROADSWORD. 



root wore eased in polished steel. However, a little practice will soon over- 
come the difficulty. This cut is much in use among the Sikhs. 

GENERAL ADVICE. 

Xever look at your own sword, but watch the eye and sword-wrist of your 
opponent. 

Remember that the great point in this exercise, as in fencing, is to gain 
time. Endeavor, therefore, to advance your point nearer your adversary 
than his is to you. 

Begin the assault out of distance, so that neither party can complain of 
being taken by surprise. 

If the two parties exchange a cut or a thrust at the same moment, the 
one w r ho gave his cut or thrust in the third position is victorious. 

When a cut or thrust is made, the one who receives it passes his sword, 
i. e., stick, into his left hand, and his opponent comes to inside guard. 

Always spring back to the second position after delivering -a cut or ttfrust. 

Keep the line of direction carefully, or you will leave an open space for 
the adversary to get his sword into. 

We cannot be too careful to impress upon our pupils the necessity for 
always making use of the mask in these exercises. One of the best draughts- 
men of the present day, who is also a very fine swordsman, lost the sight 
of one of his eyes through neglect of this necessary precaution. 

In conclusion, we beg our young readers to perform their Fencing 
Exercises with decorum and gentleness toward each other ; endeavoring, at 
the same time, to execute all their parades, etc., with precision and elegance. 
Let them then exhibit as little awkwardness as possible, and no loss of 
temper ; for ill-nature always mars the pleasure of any pastime. 




3477-2 



